Synthesis and application of epoxy resins: A review

Preface 1 Introduction: 1.1 Background 1.2 Fire reaction and fire resistive properties of composites 1.3 Composites and fire 1.4 Case studies of composites in fire 1.5 Concluding remarks References 2Thermal Decomposition of Composites in Fire: 2.1 Introduction2.2. Thermal decomposition mechanisms of organic polymers 2/3 Rate processes and characterisation of decomposition 2.4 Polymers and their decomposition processes 2.5 Fire damage to composites 2.6 Concluding remarks References 3 Fire Reaction Properties of Composites: 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Time-to-ignition 3.3 Heat release rate 3.4 Extinction flammability index & thermal stability index 3.5 Mass loss 3.6 Smoke 3.7 Smoke toxicity 3.8 Limiting oxygen index 3.9 Surface spread of flame 3.10 Fire resistance References 4. Fire Modelling of Composites: 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Thermal exposure 4.3 Modelling material fire dynamics 4.4 Structural modelling of fire response References 5 Modelling the Thermal Response of Composites in Fire: 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Response of composites to fire 5.3 Modelling heat conduction in composites 5.4 Modelling the fire response of composites 5.5 Modelling the thermal properties of composites 5.6 Concluding remarks References 6. Structural Properties of Composites in Fire: 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Laminate properties 6.3 Measurement of elastic constants 6.4 Mechanical properties as a function of temperature 6.5 Modelling of properties 6.6 Fire resistance of laminates under load 6.7 Modelling of fire resistance of laminates under load 6.8 Concluding remarks References 7. Post-Fire Properties of Composites: 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Post-fire properties of laminates 7.3 Modelling the post-fire properties of laminates 7.4 Post-fire properties of sandwich composites 7.5 Post-fire properties of fire protected composites 7.6 Concluding remarks References 8 Flame Retardant Composites: 8.1 Introduction 8.2 The combustion cycle 8.3 Flame retardants for composites 8.4 Flame retardant fillers for composite 8.5 Flame retardant organic polymers for composites 8.6 Flame retardant inorganic polymers for composites 8.7 Flame retardant fibres for composites 8.8 Fire protective surface coatings References 9 Fire Properties of Polymer Nanocomposites: 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Characterization of nanocomposite formation 9.3 Evaluation of fire retardancy 9.4 Clay modifications 9.5 Examples of fire retardancy of polymer nanocomposites 9.6 Mechanisms of fire retardancy in nanocomposites 9.7 Future trends in fire retardancy of nanocomposites References 10 Fire Safety Regulations: 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Fire safety regulations for rail 10.3 Fire safety regulations for automobiles, buses and trucks 10.4 Fire safety regulations for civil infrastructure 10.5 Fire safety regulations for civilian aircraft 10.6 Fire safety regulations for ships and submarines References 11 Fire Tests for Composites: 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Scale of fire reaction tests 11.3 Cone calorimeter 11.4 Atmosphere controlled cone calorimeter 11.5 Intermediate-scale cone calorimeter 11.6 Ohio State University calorimeter 11.7 Limiting oxygen index test 11.8 Flame spread tests 11.9 Smoke density tests 11.10 Furnace tests 11.11 Burn-through & jet-fire tests 11.12 Single burning item test 11.13 Room fire tests 11.14 Structural integrity in fire tests 11.15 Aircraft fire tests 11.16 Concluding remarks References 12 Health Hazards of Composites in Fire: 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Smoke toxicity test methods 12.3 Health hazards of combustion gases 12.4 N-gas model for smoke toxic potency 12.5 Health hazards of fibres 12.6 Personal protective wear against burning composite materials 12.7 Concluding remarks References Subject Index

Fire Properties of Polymer Composite Materials

Recently published research indicates that natural fibre based polymer composites have limited applications in advanced structural systems due to their low impact performance. However, natural fibres have great potential for reducing the product weight, lowering material cost, and renewability. Hybrid composites made from a combination of natural/synthetic fibres, natural/natural fibres, or synthetic/synthetic fibres are also receiving attention from both researchers and the industry for structural applications owing to the tailored mechanical and impact properties of these materials. The hybridisation process is one of the paramount and more efficient ways to strengthen and improve the performance of composite materials. This review paper examines the impact properties of hybrid composites manufactured with the aim of improving their structural characteristics, and in particular, is focused on the impact resistance and penetration behaviour of hybrid composites reinforced with natural and synthetic fibres as well as their suitability for modern structural applications.

Impact behaviour of hybrid composites for structural applications: a review

Preface. Acronyms. 1 Introduction to Flame Retardancy and Polymer Flammability (Sergei V. Levchik). 1.1 Introduction. 1.2 Polymer Combustion and Testing. 1.3 Flame Retardancy. 1.4 Conclusions and Future Outlook. References. 2 Fundamentals of Polymer Nanocomposite Technology (E. Manias, G. Polizos, H. Nakajima, and M. J. Heidecker). 2.1 Introduction. 2.2 Fundamentals of Polymer Nanocomposites. 2.3 Effects of Nanofillers on Material Properties. 2.4 Future Outlook. References. 3 Flame Retardant Mechanism of Polymer-Clay Nanocomposites (Jeffrey W. Gilman). 3.1 Introduction. 3.2 Flame Retardant Mechanism. 3.3 Conclusions and Future Outlook. References. 4 Molecular Mechanics Calculations of the Thermodynamic Stabilities of Polymer-Carbon Nanotube Composites (Stanislav I. Stoliarov and Marc R. Nyden). 4.1 Introduction. 4.2 Background and Context. 4.3 Description of the Method. 4.4 Application to PS-CNT Composites. 4.5 Uncertainties and Limitations. 4.6 Summary and Conclusions. References. 5 Considerations Regarding Specific Impacts of the Principal Fire Retardancy Mechanisms in Nanocomposites (Bernhard Schartel). 5.1 Introduction. 5.2 Influence of Nanostructured Morphology. 5.3 Fire Retardancy Effects and Their Impact on the Fire Behavior of Nanocomposites. 5.4 Assessment of Fire Retardancy. 5.5 Summary and Conclusions. References. 6 Intumescence and Nanocomposites: a Novel Route for Flame-Retarding Polymeric Materials (Serge Bourbigot and Sophie Duquesne). 6.1 Introduction. 6.2 Basics of Intumescence. 6.3 Zeolites as Synergistic Agents in Intumescent Systems. 6.4 Intumescents in Polymer Nanocomposites. 6.5 Nanofillers as Synergists in Intumescent Systems. 6.6 Critical Overview of Recent Advances. 6.7 Summary and Conclusion. References. 7 Flame Retardant Properties of Organoclays and Carbon Nanotubes and Their Combinations with Alumina Trihydrate (Gunter Beyer). 7.1 Introduction. 7.2 Experimental Process. 7.3 Organoclay Nanocomposites. 7.4 Carbon Nanotube Nanocomposites. 7.5 Summary and Conclusions. References. 8 Nanocomposites with Halogen and Nonintumescent Phosphorus Flame Retardant Additives (Yuan Hu and Lei Song). 8.1 Introduction. 8.2 Preparation Methods and Morphological Study. 8.3 Thermal Stability. 8.4 Mechanical Properties. 8.5 Flammability Properties. 8.6 Flame Retardant Mechanism. 8.7 Summary and Conclusions. References. 9 Thermoset Fire Retardant Nanocomposites (Mauro Zammarano). 9.1 Introduction. 9.2 Clays. 9.3 Thermoset Nanocomposites. 9.4 Epoxy Nanocomposites Based on Cationic Clays. 9.5 Epoxy Nanocomposites Based on Anionic Clays. 9.6 Polyurethane Nanocomposites. 9.7 Vinyl Ester Nanocomposites. 9.8 Summary and Conclusions. References. 10 Progress in Flammability Studies of Nanocomposites with New Types of Nanoparticles (Takashi Kashiwagi). 10.1 Introduction. 10.2 Nanoscale Oxide-Based Nanocomposites. 10.3 Carbon-Based Nanocomposites. 10.4 Discussion of Results. 10.5 Summary and Conclusions. References. 11 Potential Applications of Nanocomposites for Flame Retardancy (A. Richard Horrocks and Baljinder K. Kandola). 11.1 Introduction. 11.2 Requirements for Nanocomposite System Applications. 11.3 Potential Application Areas. 11.4 Future Outlook. References. 12 Practical Issues and Future Trends in Polymer Nanocomposite Flammability Research (Alexander B. Morgan and Charles A. Wilkie). 12.1 Introduction. 12.2 Polymer Nanocomposite Structure and Dispersion. 12.3 Polymer Nanocomposite Analysis. 12.4 Changing Fire and Environmental Regulations. 12.5 Current Environmental Health and Safety Status for Nanoparticles. 12.6 Commercialization Hurdles. 12.7 Fundamentals of Polymer Nanocomposite Flammability. 12.8 Future Outlook. References. Index.

Flame retardant polymer nanocomposites

Effect of a novel charring–foaming agent on flame retardancy and thermal degradation of intumescent flame retardant polypropylene

Finite element analysis of closed-cell aluminium foam under quasi-static loading

Novel glass-reinforced epoxy composites containing a phosphate-based intumescent and inherently flame retardant (cellulosic (Visil, Sateri) and phenol-formaldehyde (Kynol)) fibres have been fabricated. These components are added both as additives in pulverized form and as fibre interdispersed with intumescent as a fabric scrim for partial replacement of glass fibre. Fire testing has been performed using a cone calorimeter at an incident heat flux of 50 kW/m 2 and the results have shown that introduction of the intumescent/FR fibre to the matrix can significantly reduce the peak heat release values and smoke intensities evolved by composites. Mechanical testing in tensile and flexural modes of these samples has shown that inclusion of the intumescent/fibre system does not adversely influence their tensile and flexural properties. The effect of heat on mechanical properties has been observed by heating the samples in a furnace at 400 °C for 5 min and tested for their flexural and tensile strength retentions. The charred samples remaining after cone exposure were also tested for stiffness test. Some of the samples retained up to 21% of the initial stiffness after being exposed to high heat flux in the cone calorimeter whereas, the control sample was rendered unusable after cone calorimeter exposure.

Mechanical performance of heat/fire damaged novel flame retardant glass - reinforced epoxy composites

Recently we have shown that the introduction of an intumescent/flame retardant fibre system to a rigid composite comprising a textile reinforcing element (e.g. woven glass fabric layers) and a resin may generate additional char with respect to the additive contributions of all components present when studied using thermogravimetric techniques. This paper presents the results of cone calorimetric experiments of a series of composites comprising a combination of glass reinforcing elements, selected intumescents (based on melamine phosphate), the flame retardant Visil fibre and selected unsaturated polyester resins. Results show that the introduction of the intumescent/Visil can significantly reduce the peak heat release values and in some cases the peak smoke intensities evolved by composite samples exposed to 50 kW m−2 heat flux. Furthermore, mass loss rates are reduced and residual chars are increased. There is a clear indication that we have established a novel route to increasing the fire resistant properties of rigid composites.

The effect of intumescents on the burning behaviour of polyester-resin-containing composites

This first part of a series of papers on the thermo-mechanical responses of fiber-reinforced composites at elevated temperatures reports the exper- imental results required as input data in order to validate the kinetic, heat transfer, and thermo-mechanical models being developed and to be discussed in subsequent papers. Here the experimental techniques used for the determination of physical, thermal, and mechanical properties and their significance for particular models are discussed. The fire retardant system used to improve the fire performance of glass fiber-reinforced epoxy composites is a combination of a cellulosic charring agent and an interactive intumescent, melamine phosphate. Thermogravimetry is used to obtain kinetic parameters and to evaluate the temperature-dependent physical prop- erties such as density, thermal conductivity, and specific heat capacity, determined using other techniques. During flammability evaluation under a cone calorimeter at 50 kW/m 2 heat flux, thermocouples are used to measure temperatures through the thicknesses of samples. To investigate their thermo-mechanical behavior, the com- posites are exposed to different heating environments and their residual flexural modulus after cooling to ambient temperatures determined. At a low heating rate of 10 � C/min and convective conditions, there was a minimal effect of fire retardant additives on mechanical property retention, indicating that fire retardants have no effect on the glass transition temperature of the resin. On the other hand, the fire- retarded coupons exposed to a radiant heat from cone calorimeter, where the heating rate is about 200 � C/min, showed 60% retention of flexural modulus after a 40-s exposure, compared to 20% retention observed for the control sample after cooling specimens to ambient temperatures.

Thermo-mechanical Responses of Fiber-reinforced Epoxy Composites Exposed to High Temperature Environments. Part I: Experimental Data Acquisition

The finite element (FE) method has been used to study the mechanical and thermal properties of both conventional and re-entrant (i.e. negative Poisson's ratio) honeycombs, which may be used as the cores of sandwich panel composites. Failure of the honeycomb structures was simulated using a crack propagation method developed in-house. The cell-wall stress build up in the conventional honeycomb was calculated to be significantly reduced relative to the re-entrant honeycomb under (2D) hydrostatic loading, implying that the conventional core will undergo significantly less internal damage than the re-entrant core. Conversely, the re-entrant honeycomb performs better than the conventional honeycomb under thermal loading conditions. The size and pathway of the crack formed during the simulation is dependent on the failure stress distribution used in the crack propagation routine.

Peter Myler

Papers

Finite element analysis of closed-cell aluminium foam under quasi-static loading

Mechanical performance of heat/fire damaged novel flame retardant glass - reinforced epoxy composites

The effect of intumescents on the burning behaviour of polyester-resin-containing composites

Thermo-mechanical Responses of Fiber-reinforced Epoxy Composites Exposed to High Temperature Environments. Part I: Experimental Data Acquisition

Towards the design of sandwich panel composites with enhanced mechanical and thermal properties by variation of the in-plane Poisson's ratios