Over the past few generations, expectations of comfort, cleanliness and convenience have altered radically, but these dramatic changes have largely gone unnoticed. This intriguing book brings together the sociology of consumption and technology to investigate the evolution of these changes, as well the social meaning of the practices themselves. Homes, offices, domestic appliances and clothes play a crucial role in our lives, but not many of us question exactly how and why we perform so many daily rituals associated with them. Showers, heating, air-conditioning and clothes washing are simply accepted as part of our normal, everyday lives, but clearly this was not always the case. When did the daily shower become de rigueur? What effect has air conditioning had on the siesta at one time an integral part of Mediterranean life and culture? This book interrogates the meaning and supposed normality of these practices and draws disturbing conclusions. There is clear evidence supporting the view that routine consumption is controlled by conceptions of normality and profoundly shaped by cultural and economic forces. Shove maintains that habits are not just changing, but are changing in ways that imply escalating and standardizing patterns of consumption. This shrewd and engrossing analysis shows just how far the social meanings and practices of comfort, cleanliness and convenience have eluded us.

Comfort, cleanliness and conveniencethe social organization ofnormality

Smart Energy Systems for coherent 100% renewable energy and transport solutions

Research in building energy consumption often uses semi-structured interviews to produce qualitative data on consumer beliefs, attitudes, practices and skills. A survey of 54 recent papers in six prominent building and energy journals shows that the samples are typically small, but inferences are often made for interventions in the light of the findings, on the assumption that these are somehow transferable to wider populations. It is often asked ‘how many interviews are enough’ to produce reliable results. Theoretical literature on this theme has avoided a straightforward statistical critique, and justified the practice with appeals to precedent, the special nature of qualitative personal data, and a limited pool of empirical work. This paper reviews this literature and presents a statistical approach, based on binomial logic, to critiquing and supporting the practice of semi-structured interview research in the building and energy field. The approach developed offers a set of straightforward criteria which researchers can use to estimate the reliability of their findings and inferences from the qualitative data produced in semi-structured interviews.

How many interviews are enough? Do qualitative interviews in building energy consumption research produce reliable knowledge?

Much policy effort focuses on energy efficiency of technology, though not only efficiency but also user behaviour is an important factor influencing the amount of consumed energy. This paper explores to what extent energy efficiency of appliances and houses or user behaviour is the more important, both for understanding why some households consume much more energy than others, and when looking for relevant approaches to a future low-carbon society. The paper uses several sources to explore this question, most of them from a Danish context, including results from the researcher’s own projects and Danish national statistics. These Danish data are discussed together with international studies. Through the presentation of these different projects and examples, it is shown how user behaviour is at least as important as the efficiency of technology when explaining households’ energy consumption in Denmark. In the conclusion, these results are discussed in a broader international perspective and it is concluded that more research in this field is necessary. In relation to energy policy, it is argued that it is not a question of technology efficiency or behaviour, as both have to be included in future policy if energy demand is actually to be reduced. Furthermore, it is also argued that not only individual behaviour is relevant, but also a broader perspective on collectively shared low-carbon practices has to be promoted.

Efficient technologies or user behaviour, which is the more important when reducing households’ energy consumption?

It is well known that occupants strongly influence the final energy consumption of buildings, however, for several reasons more detailed knowledge is needed. These reasons include being able to model energy consumption, being able to adapt energy-efficient technologies and buildings to user practices and being able to persuade consumers to lower their consumption. This paper presents different methodological approaches to study households' energy consumption including (1) register and survey methods with statistical analysis of large databases, (2) heat-consumption studies with surveys, qualitative interviews and indoor measurements and (3) detailed end-use metering of electricity consumption combined with surveys and qualitative interviews. The notions of either behaviour or lifestyle are often used when discussing variations in energy consumption. In this article, it will be argued that neither of these approaches is the most useful when analysing households' energy consumption, as much of consumption r...

New needs for better understanding of household's energy consumption – behaviour, lifestyle or practices?

https://vbn.aau.dk/files/71335472/Air_to_air_heat_pumps_in_real_life_use_Energy_and_buildings_author_s_version.pdf

Air-to-air heat pumps in real-life use: Are potential savings achieved or are they transformed into increased comfort?

Air-to-air heat pumps are increasingly promoted as a means for energy saving and a future component in a more flexible electricity demand (load management). At the same time, heat pumps potentially contribute to long-term changes in comfort behaviour and practices, which may undermine the energy saving potential. This paper sums up the findings from a Danish research project on air-to-air heat pumps, electricity use and comfort. If used properly, heat pumps can provide high efficient heating of houses. However, a Danish spot test indicates that airto-air heat pumps not always result in energy savings. The use of heat pumps might involve changes in the residents’ thermal comfort practices like higher indoor temperatures in the winter or air-conditioning (cooling) in the summer. The reasons for this might be both technical and behavioural. The paper examines the comfort practices that influence the electricity consumption related to air-to-air heat pumps: How do residents use heat pumps? And what are the consequences for the comfort practices and the electricity use? The analysis is based on results from a survey and qualitative interviews among Danish owners of dwellings and summerhouses with focus on their comfort practices. The study also includes results from metering data on the households’ actual electricity consumption and technical inspections of heat pumps. The paper draws on a practice theoretical approach, which understands energy consumption as an integral part of everyday practices that integrate different elements, including habits and technologies. Introduction In Denmark, air-to-air heat pumps are promoted by energy authorities and in energy saving campaigns as an energy-efficient alternative to direct electric heating (usually convection heaters) in dwellings and summerhouses. Thus, visitors to the website of the Danish Energy Saving Trust (an independent, public sector authority that promotes energy savings) can read that “air-to-air heat pumps are a good and cost-efficient alternative to direct electric heating, especially if you also use your summerhouse outside the summer season” (Danish Energy Saving Trust 2011). There are about 215,000 summerhouses in Denmark (Statistics Denmark 2010), and the majority of these (app. 84 %) have direct electric heating installed while only about one out of ten has an air-to-air heat pump (Kofoed et al. 2010). Furthermore, app. 119,000 dwellings, or 8 % of all single-detached, semi-detached, terraced and farm houses, are heated by direct electric heating, while only 7,700 have a heat pump as their primary heating form (Dansk Energi 2010). Thus, the total potential for substituting electric heating with air-to-air heat pumps is considerable. The Danish Energy Agency estimates that the number of installed air-to-air heat pumps is about 75,000 (Wittrup 2010). Many of these probably supplement other forms of heat supply (e.g. direct electric heating). Typical air-source heat pumps deliver an amount of energy for space heating that is 3 to 4 times the electricity consumed. Thus, replacing direct electric heating with an air-to-air heat pump should ideally reduce the electricity consumption for heating by about two-third. However, as documented by studies of the so-called rebound effect (see review in Sorrell et al. 2009), theoretical energy savings from energy efficiency improvements are in general only partly realized due to increased quantities of consumption or a general increase in consump

/pdf/air-to-air-heat-pumps-a-wolf-in-sheep-s-clothing-4hiuppsftt.pdf

Air-to-air heat pumps: A wolf in sheep’s clothing?

Energy Savings with Air-to-Air Heat Pumps – True or False?

Energy Savings with Air-to-Air Heat Pumps – True or False?: Findings and Policy Implications from a Danish Study

This paper deals with individual air-to-air heat pumps in dwellings and summerhouses and the question of to what extent they deliver actual savings in energy consumption . Results show that 40% of the expected reduction in electricity consumption is transferred into increased comfort in the homes, including increased heating areas, keeping a higher temperature and a longer heating season and using the heat pump for air-conditioning. Data include electricity consumption in 185 households before and after installation of heat pumps together with survey results of 480 households. Furthermore 12 households are selected for in-depth analysis including technical inspection and qualitative interviewing. Especially for summerhouses results indicate that there on average is no reduction in electricity consumption, as energy efficiency is outbalanced by increased comfort. These results have to be taken into account when making long term energy planning for a sustainable energy system. INTRODUCTION The sale of air-to air heat pumps has been quite high, notably in Norway where there are sold some hundred thousand [1] but also in Sweden and France expanding sales figures of heat pumps are reported. In Sweden domestic heat pump sale rose from approximately 20000 to 80000 per year between 2006 and 2007 and in France from approximately 50000 to 70000 per year [2]. Studies from several different European countries has pointed out that there is good economical reason for the consumers to install air-to-air heat pumps [3, 4, 5]. The question of what role air-to-air heat pumps play in a future sustainable energy system have to be discussed together with other technical changes of the whole energy system including to what extent electricity is produced by renewable energy [6,7] and the energy renovation of the building stock [6]. Replacing direct electric heating with air-to-air heat pumps are, however, always more energy efficient because heat pumps can provide 2-5 times more heat than the electricity they use as driving force [3]. In a scenario for future 100% renewable energy systems in Denmark * Corresponding author * The project team included besides the authors also Troels Fjorbak Larsen, IT Energy; Erik Gudbjerg and Lisbeth Rasmussen, Lokalenergi and Preben Munter, Seas-nve. † The initial project was financed by Elforsk.dk and further analysis for this article was related to the Research Centre for Zero Energy Buildings (http://www.zeb.aau.dk). individual heat pumps are thus also included for areas not covered by district heating [9]. From a socio-technical point of view it can, however, be expected that the full technical potential for energy efficiency will not be met because of changes in user practices towards still higher expectations and norms of comfort [1] as is also known from studies of other types of households’ technologies [10]. Within a techno-economic perspective a corresponding phenomenon is known as the rebound effect focusing on how the economic gains that households get from implementing more efficient technologies will be used to increase consumption in other areas or within the same area resulting in higher standards and thus increased energy consumption. There has been a debate about the size of the rebound effect within the household sector and a recent review suggest a rebound effect on 20% meaning that 20% of the energy savings gained from efficient technologies within the household sector are transformed into increased energy consumption and thus not realised as energy savings [11, 12]. The purpose of the study presented in this paper was to analyse to what extent the potential reduction from installation of air-to-air heat pumps are realised or transformed into increased consumption. Furthermore, it was to go more into detail in explaining within which areas more precisely the increases in comfort is seen and to understand in more sociological terms why and how these changes occur. Today, 8% of houses in Denmark [13] and 84% of summerhouses are heated by direct electric heating [14]. The majority of these are not placed near city centres and thus reachable by district heating and the most relevant future heating supply for these homes is thus individual heat pumps [9]. As these houses have not installed central heating based on water-borne systems, the economically most attractive choice will most often be to install air-to-air heat pumps. Another argument for looking at air-to-air heat pumps in relation to changes in comfort norms is that these can easily be used for air-conditioning as well. Air-conditioning has until now not been normal in Danish households, however, having available technologies installed in the home might contribute to change this. In the following, we will first describe the methods of the study and then, in the main part of the paper, present findings and analysis for permanently occupied dwellings and summerhouse respectively. In the conclusion, results are discussed in relation to the implications for interaction between heating technologies and renewable energy systems.

Poul Erik Petersen

Papers

Air-to-air heat pumps in real-life use: Are potential savings achieved or are they transformed into increased comfort?

Air-to-air heat pumps: A wolf in sheep’s clothing?

Energy Savings with Air-to-Air Heat Pumps – True or False?

Energy Savings with Air-to-Air Heat Pumps – True or False?: Findings and Policy Implications from a Danish Study

Heat pumps and user practices – energy reductions or increased comfort?