In it's broadest conception, a \" system \" may be described as a complex of interacting components together with the relationships among them that permit the identification of a boundary-maintaining entity or process. Since social and psychological phenomena tend to resist quantitative modeling by posing basic difficulties already on the plane of boundary identification , alternative approaches must be relied upon. One such approach draws on the body of knowledge derived from General System Theory and its application in the domain of human activity systems. The line that separates the aspects of a system from those of its environment tends to blur as the unit of observation moves from natural and designed physical systems to human and conceptual social systems. While the former are easier to define and have relatively clear-cut aims or purposes, the latter are more difficult to define; most often they do not have clear-cut and agreed upon aims or purposes, and even when agreed upon, these may change over time. In addition , human activity systems (be they composed of individuals in a nuclear family, musicians in an orchestra, or members of a national or international organization) tend to have multiple and overlapping purposes, of which it is possible to distinguish at least three levels: the purpose of the system, the purpose of its parts, and the purpose of the system of which it is a part, the supra-system. The method proposed by systems theory is to model complex entities created by the multiple interaction of components by abstracting from certain details of structure and component , and concentrating on the dynamics that define the characteristic functions, properties, and relationships that are internal or external to the system. The history of systems theories includes contributions from such seminal thinkers as Al-in more recent years, the dynamical systems theorists, the family systems theorists, and those who deal with dissipative structures and holistic paradigms. This chapter traces the history of systems theories, their permutations, and their developments. Evolutionary systems design is introduced as one of the most recent advances in systems praxis. Cognitive maps are explored as an example of the conceptual tools stemming from systems theory that are positioned to contribute to the study of perception, the focus of this volume.

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Chapter 3 - Systems Theories: Their Origins, Foundations, and development

This paper describes a research programme which used the idea that there is a ‘system of systems methodologies’ to analyse the relationship between OR and other systems-based, problem-solving approaches, and to relate different systems methodologies to appropriate problem-contexts. The results are promising for those who wish to broaden the theoretical basis of OR in order to extend its domain of effective application. Further progress, however, depends upon reconstituting the research programme on surer theoretical foundations. Unless this is done, both the potential of the original work and its initial intent risk being lost. It is now necessary to go beyond ‘a system of systems methodologies’ and to embed that work in an explicit proposal for a critical management science.

Beyond a System of Systems Methodologies

Critical systems thinking is a relative newcomer in the systems tradition of thought. Nevertheless, it has already made a number of significant contributions to the field and is now developing more quickly than any other part of systems thinking. The paper charts the origins and nature of this evolving, critical systems, body of work. The author's own impressions of its development are first set out. This helps establish that critical systems thinking has come to rest upon five “commitments” which define its essential character. These commitments are then used to classify the published literature associated with critical systems thinking. The result is a review of the origins and nature of critical systems thinking up to 1990.

The origins and nature of critical systems thinking

For much of its history management science had a quantitative and technical emphasis. More recently, there has been a move towards more subjective approaches such as 'soft OR' and 'soft systems'. Currently, there is interest in 'critical management science' drawing on critical theory, particularly the work of Habermas. This paper reviews developments in critical management science, in particular critiques of traditional and 'soft' management science; Jackson and Keys' system of systems methodology; critical management science methodologies and the problem of power in bringing about change; and the postmodernist critique.

https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1057%2Fjors.1992.1.pdf

Recent Developments in Critical Management Science

Interests within the systems community have turned during the last decade toward a consideration and an importation of ideas emanating from what might be termed “Continental” philosophers. I refer, of course, to interest in the work of Habermas and, to a lesser degree, of Foucault, Derrida, Lacan, and Lyotard (see, e.g., Cummings, 1994; Flood, 1989a Flood, 1989b Flood, 1989c, Flood, 1990a Flood, 1990b Flood, 1990c; Fuenmayor, 1985, Fuenmayor, 1990a, Fuenmayor, 1990b, Fuenmayor, 1991; Gregory, 1990, Gregory, 1992; Jackson, 1982, Jackson, 1983, Jackson, 1985a, Jackson, 1985b, Jackson, 1987a, Jackson, 1987b, Jackson, 1989, Jackson, 1990, Jackson, 1991a, Jackson, 1991b; Levy, 1991; Midgley, 1990, Midgley, 1991, Midgley, 1992a, Midgley, 1992b, Midgley, 1994; Mingers, 1980, Mingers, 1992; Oliga, 1988, Oliga, 1990a Oliga, 1990b Oliga, 1990c, Oliga, 1991; Payne, 1992; Ulrich, 1983, Ulrich, 1988; Valero-Silva, 1994, Valero-Silva, 1995a, Valero-Silva, 1995b, this volume; Wooliston, 1990, Wooliston, 1991a,Wooliston, 1991b—other contributors are listed by Oliga, 1988, Oliga, 1991). The main questions for contemporary systems practitioners, especially those whose field of intervention is organizations and communities, have emerged from the sheer range of approaches that are available for responding to problems, problematics, messes, or problem situations.

Dealing with Diversity

This article contains an exploration of a number of the many interpretations of its title Liberating Systems Theory. It is in fact a point of reflection on the way to realizing Critical Systems Thinking. Particular points of focus are critical theory integrated to practice in systems "problem solving," and the history and progress of systems thinking, considering critically the relationship of the past with progressively emerging future ends, i.e., emerging Critical Systems Thinking.

R. L. Flood

Papers

Liberating Systems Theory: Toward Critical Systems Thinking: