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Fish viruses and fish viral diseases.

Defense mechanisms and disease prevention in farmed marine invertebrates

▪ Abstract Many factors (climate warming, pollution, harvesting, introduced species) can contribute to disease outbreaks in marine life Concomitant increases in each of these makes it difficult to attribute recent changes in disease occurrence or severity to any one factor For example, the increase in disease of Caribbean coral is postulated to be a result of climate change and introduction of terrestrial pathogens Indirect evidence exists that (a) warming increased disease in turtles; (b) protection, pollution, and terrestrial pathogens increased mammal disease; (c) aquaculture increased disease in mollusks; and (d) release from overfished predators increased sea urchin disease In contrast, fishing and pollution may have reduced disease in fishes In other taxa (eg, sea grasses, crustaceans, sharks), there is little evidence that disease has changed over time The diversity of patterns suggests there are many ways that environmental change can interact with disease in the ocean

Are diseases increasing in the ocean

The rise of aquaculture has been one of the most profound changes in global food production of the past 100 years. Driven by population growth, rising demand for seafood and a levelling of production from capture fisheries, the practice of farming aquatic animals has expanded rapidly to become a major global industry. Aquaculture is now integral to the economies of many countries. It has provided employment and been a major driver of socio-economic development in poor rural and coastal communities, particularly in Asia, and has relieved pressure on the sustainability of the natural harvest from our rivers, lakes and oceans. However, the rapid growth of aquaculture has also been the source of anthropogenic change on a massive scale. Aquatic animals have been displaced from their natural environment, cultured in high density, exposed to environmental stress, provided artificial or unnatural feeds, and a prolific global trade has developed in both live aquatic animals and their products. At the same time, over-exploitation of fisheries and anthropogenic stress on aquatic ecosystems has placed pressure on wild fish populations. Not surprisingly, the consequence has been the emergence and spread of an increasing array of new diseases. This review examines the rise and characteristics of aquaculture, the major viral pathogens of fish and shrimp and their impacts, and the particular characteristics of disease emergence in an aquatic, rather than terrestrial, context. It also considers the potential for future disease emergence in aquatic animals as aquaculture continues to expand and faces the challenges presented by climate change.

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Emerging viral diseases of fish and shrimp

Global trade in ornamental fish from an Australian perspective: the case for revised import risk analysis and management strategies.

Two co-habitation studies with common carp were conducted to determine whether latent infections of koi herpesvirus (KHV) exist. Fish were exposed to KHV using 2 different temperature profiles, which induced low and high initial mortality. Subsequently, certain groups of fish were co-habited with naive fish while others were not. Koi herpesvirus was reactivated in fish from 3 of the 5 experimental tanks. Reactivation of the virus occurred regardless of the initial mortality associated with the virus or whether fish were co-habited with naive fish. The reactivation of the virus in our experiments occurred several months after the initial exposure to KHV and appeared to be temperature dependent.

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Reactivation of koi herpesvirus infections in common carp Cyprinus carpio.

This paper describes effects of temperature on herpes-like virus detection in Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas larvae held at different temperatures. Intranuclear, intracytoplasmic and extracellular viral particles were observed in velum and mantle connective tissues of oyster larvae reared at 25-26°C. In larvae held at 22-23OC, although nuclear lesions were observed, the presence of viral particles was not detected. Results were obtained for oyster larvae with 4 different parental origins. Herpesvirus infection was found in 3 of the 4 groups of oyster larvae held In the same conditions at the higher temperature.

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Effects of temperature on herpes-like virus detection among hatchery-reared larval Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas

A virus was isolated during disease outbreaks in bream Abramis brama, tench Tinca tinca, roach Rutilis rutilis and crucian carp Carassius carassius populations at 6 fishery sites in England in 1999. Mortalities at the sites were primarily among recently introduced fish and the predominant fish species affected was bream. The bream stocked at 5 of the 6 English fishery sites were found to have originated from the River Bann, Northern Ireland. Most fish presented few consistent external signs of disease but some exhibited clinical signs similar to those of spring viraemia of carp (SVC), with extensive skin haemorrhages, ulceration on the flanks and internal signs including ascites and petechial haemorrhages. The most prominent histopathological changes were hepatocellular necrosis, interstitial nephritis and splenitis. The virus induced a cytopathic effect in tissue cultures (Epithelioma papulosum cyprini [EPC] cells) at 20 degrees C and produced moderate signals in an enzyme immunoassay (EIA) for the detection of SVC virus. The virus showed a close serological relationship to pike fry rhabdovirus in both EIA and serum neutralisation assays and to a rhabdovirus isolated during a disease outbreak in a bream population in the River Bann in 1998. A high degree of sequence similarity (> or = 99.5% nucleotide identity) was observed between the English isolates and those from the River Bann. Experimental infection of juvenile bream, tench and carp with EPC cell-grown rhabdovirus by bath and intraperitoneal injection resulted in a 40% mortality of bream in the injection group only. The virus was re-isolated from pooled kidney, liver and spleen tissue samples from moribund bream. The field observations together with the experimental results indicate that this rhabdovirus is of low virulence but may have the potential to cause significant mortality in fishes under stress.

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Isolation of a rhabdovirus during outbreaks of disease in cyprinid fish species at fishery sites in England

A simple nylon membrane-based DNA macroarray was developed to genotype spring viraemia of carp virus (SVCV) and related viruses. Twenty-six viruses were genotyped using the array, and the results were confirmed by phylogenetic analysis of a 426 bp partial glycoprotein gene sequence. The array was not only capable of discriminating between the 4 main genogroups of cyprinid vesiculo-type viruses described previously, but also accurately sub-type the SVC viruses assigned to Genogroup I. The assay offers a practical solution for diagnostic laboratories that currently lack a sequencing capability to confirm the nature of PCR products generated in suspected SVCV cases.

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R. M. Le Deuff

Papers

Reactivation of koi herpesvirus infections in common carp Cyprinus carpio.

Effects of temperature on herpes-like virus detection among hatchery-reared larval Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas

Isolation of a rhabdovirus during outbreaks of disease in cyprinid fish species at fishery sites in England

Genotyping spring viraemia of carp virus and other piscine vesiculo-like viruses using reverse hybridisation