Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use, and User

Valid measurement scales for predicting user acceptance of computers are in short supply. Most subjective measures used in practice are unvalidated, and their relationship to system usage is unknown. The present research develops and validates new scales for two specific variables, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use, which are hypothesized to be fundamental determinants of user acceptance. Definitions of these two variables were used to develop scale items that were pretested for content validity and then tested for reliability and construct validity in two studies involving a total of 152 users and four application programs. The measures were refined and streamlined, resulting in two six-item scales with reliabilities of .98 for usefulness and .94 for ease of use. The scales exhibited hgih convergent, discriminant, and factorial validity. Perceived usefulness was significnatly correlated with both self-reported current usage r = .63, Study 1) and self-predicted future usage r = .85, Study 2). Perceived ease of use was also significantly correlated with current usage r = .45, Study 1) and future usage r = .59, Study 2). In both studies, usefulness had a signficnatly greater correaltion with usage behavior than did ease of use. Regression analyses suggest that perceived ease of use may actually be a causal antecdent to perceived usefulness, as opposed to a parallel, direct determinant of system usage. Implications are drawn for future research on user acceptance.

Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology

A large number of studies have been conducted during the last decade and a half attempting to identify those factors that contribute to information systems success. However, the dependent variable in these studies-I/S success-has been an elusive one to define. Different researchers have addressed different aspects of success, making comparisons difficult and the prospect of building a cumulative tradition for I/S research similarly elusive. To organize this diverse research, as well as to present a more integrated view of the concept of I/S success, a comprehensive taxonomy is introduced. This taxonomy posits six major dimensions or categories of I/S success-SYSTEM QUALITY, INFORMATION QUALITY, USE, USER SATISFACTION, INDIVIDUAL IMPACT, and ORGANIZATIONAL IMPACT. Using these dimensions, both conceptual and empirical studies are then reviewed a total of 180 articles are cited and organized according to the dimensions of the taxonomy. Finally, the many aspects of I/S success are drawn together into a descriptive model and its implications for future I/S research are discussed.

Information Systems Success: The Quest for the Dependent Variable

The Technology Acceptance Model and two variations of the Theory of Planned Behavior were compared to assess which model best helps to understand usage of information technology. The models were compared using student data collected from 786 potential users of a computer resource center. Behavior data was based on monitoring 3,780 visits to the resource center over a 12-week period. Weighted least squares estimation revealed that all three models performed well in terms of fit and were roughly equivalent in terms of their ability to explain behavior. Decomposing the belief structures in the Theory of Planned Behavior provided a moderate increase in the explanation of behavioral intention. Overall, the results indicate that the decomposed Theory of Planned Behavior provides a fuller understanding of behavioral intention by focusing on the factors that are likely to influence systems use through the application of both design and implementation strategies.

Understanding Information Technology Usage: A Test of Competing Models

Much previous research has established that perceived ease of use is an important factor influencing user acceptance and usage behavior of information technologies. However, very little research has been conducted to understand how that perception forms and changes over time. The current work presents and tests an anchoring and adjustment-based theoretical model of the determinants of system-specific perceived ease of use. The model proposes control (internal and external--conceptualized as computer self-efficacy and facilitating conditions, respectively), intrinsic motivation (conceptualized as computer playfulness), and emotion (conceptualized as computer anxiety) as anchors that determine early perceptions about the ease of use of a new system. With increasing experience, it is expected that system-specific perceived ease of use, while still anchored to the general beliefs regarding computers and computer use, will adjust to reflect objective usability, perceptions of external control specific to the new system environment, and system-specific perceived enjoyment. The proposed model was tested in three different organizations among 246 employees using three measurements taken over a three-month period. The proposed model was strongly supported at all points of measurement, and explained up to 60% of the variance in system-specific perceived ease of use, which is twice as much as our current understanding. Important theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

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Determinants of Perceived Ease of Use: Integrating Control, Intrinsic Motivation, and Emotion into the Technology Acceptance Model

:This paper develops a framework consisting of five core strategies or organizational postures vis-a-vis end-user computing (euc). Following a description of each of the strategies, the authors employed a two-step process to represent (1) how to effectively implement a particular euc strategy, and (2) when to adopt a particular euc strategy. The first step, based on some field observations, resulted in a descriptive profiling of the euc strategies via the management attributes of policy setting and planning, support, and control. The second step produced a prescriptive timing with respect to the phases of euc strategy evolution. The integrative framework that resulted from this two-step process was based on the premise that euc technology adoption follows a learning curve phenomenon. In essence, such a framework should serve as a tool, useful to the practitioner in coping with the dynamic environment surrounding the management of end-user computing.

Strategies for end-user computing: an integrative framework

A comparative evaluation of the impact of electronic and voice mail on organizational communication

THE IMPACT OF SBDC CONSULTING ACTIVITIES Government involvement in the private sector receives mixed reactions. Firms and trade associations lobby for government action perceived to be in their best interests, e.g., trade barriers and price supports. But many business managers criticize public sector interventions as being wasteful and inefficient. In the face of these criticisms, the Small Business Development Center (SBDC) program was initiated in 1977 by the U.S. Small Business Administration in eight pilot states. By mid-1985, the program had expanded to 39 states, plus the District of Colombia. The purpose of this article is to report the results of two empirical studies designed to test the effectiveness of the SBDC consulting programs in Georgia and South Carolina during the early 1980s. HISTORY OF THE SBDC PROGRAM The SBDC program was established on an experimental basis in 1977 in eight states. Its purpose was to fill an unmet need for staff specialists and planning consultants in small firms. Today, centers exist in over three-quarters of the continental United States. These centers, which are patterned after the Agricultural Extension Service, provide free, comprehensive managerial planning consultation to small business. Programs include direct consulting, continuing education, small business research, export services, and minority support. A typical SBDC staff may consist of faculty members, SCORE and ACE counselors, professional staff, and graduate student assistants organized to provide "in-depth consulting ... regarding the problems, critical decisions and planning ... of the small firm manager." The Small Business Development Center Act of 1979 assured continuation of the experimental Small Business Development Center Program. The legislation stengthened the existing pilot program with increased funding, direction, and administrative structure. In addition, the Act required program evaluation followed by reports to the Senate Select Committee on Small Business and the House Committee on Small Business. PREVIOUS RESEARCH ON SBDC EFFECTIVENESS As part of the present study, an examination of past studies of the SBDC program or SBDC-related programs was conducted to identify (1) the objectives of individual studies, (2) data collection and methodological techniques employed, and (3) study findings. A considerable body of literature was found, though some studies were not empirically based. Independent researchers' conclusions have been generally positive, leading to continued federal support for SBDC programs. Small Business Development Centers have been audited and assessed to determine whether the accomplishments of the original pilot centers warrant expansion to other states. While both internal and external research studies have observed problems, errors, and client failures and dissatisfaction, the generally positive impact of the SBDCs on their constituencies have led to progam expansion. In a study prepared for the House Subcommittee on SBA and SBIC Authority and General Small Business Problems, Bentley Clark Associates reported that SBDCs "provided a framework for linking the resources of the university, federal programs, and the private sector to assist small business." Bentley Clark found that a majority of SBDC clients felt the assistance provided was useful, and the program was rated good to excellent. The evaluators also reported that of the eight pilot centers, the Georgia SBDC offered the highest proportion of assistance in business start-ups. Looking specifically at the Georgia program, Robinson concluded that small firms are significantly more effective (sales, profitability, employment, and productivity) after engaging in SBDC strategic planning consultation than they were before. Robinson also found that interventions were most effective when strategic planning consultation covering all functional areas was provided, as opposed to more narrow and specific assistance. …

The Impact of SBDC Consulting Activities

Because end-user computing (EUC) is playing a more significant role in the overall performance of organizations, EUC and its associated technologies should be viewed as a set of distinct value activities — that is, activities that contribute to an organizations competitive advantage. Management should emphasize those EUC attributes that have a positive influence on the organization —direction, support, and control. This article discusses these attributes, the major issues associated with each, and the timing of each attribute in conjunction with organizational strategy.

Managing End-User Computing as a Value-Added Resource

EVALUATING THE IMPACT OF SBDC CONSULTING: A REPLY TO ELSTROTT In a recent article we reported the results of one of the first systematic attempts to determine whether the Small Business Development Centers' (SBDC) consulting activities in Georgia and South Carolina were cost effective. The Georgia study was conducted between late 1982 and early 1983 using 1981-1982 data. The South Carolina study examined the 1982 time period in a manner similar to the Georgia study. Both studies, along with other selected studies of SBDCs, were presented as testimony in congressional hearings in 1983. Our results suggested that the Georgia and South Carolina SBDCs were cost effective, returning tax dollars to the respective state governments and the federal government well in excess of the cost of providing the consulting services. The favorable cost/benefit projections were obtained despite the fact that we used conservative measures for sales tax and personal income taxes, considered only long-term cases (at least 12 hours of consulting) as the basis for projecting impact, and compared state and federal tax revenues generated solely by long-term SBDC cases with the cost of running the entire SBDC program (short-term cases, continuing education programs, research, information transfers, and so forth). Furthermore, we calculated the tax revenue accruing to government from successful businesses for one year only, whereas it is highly likely that such benefits would, extend over a number of years. Recently, a study of the impact of the SBDC program was attempted in the state of Louisiana with our study serving as the primary research model. Problems encountered in this replication inspired a Journal of Small business Management article, which precedes this reply. The purpose of this article was to citique our methodology and to offer suggestions for improvement, as well as to report the results of the Louisiana study. At the request of the JSBM editors, this reply was written in response to the criticisms in that article. We also describe the progress that was made between 1982, when the original study was begun, and 1985, when it was published. While we do not dispute that some improvements could be made in our methodology, we do not believe that it is as inaccurate as the Elstrott article implies. For example, Elstrott criticizes our use of statewide average changes in sales, employment, and profits for the control group, stating that it "distorted the calculation of the incremental percentage change between the client sample and the control sample" because our control sample was more stable than our client sample. He goes on to argue that "developing a control sample more precisely matched than statewide averages is not a hopeless academic pipe dream," citing Robinson's study as an example. Our study did, in fact, make such a trade-off when choosing statewide averages to represent the control group. Limitations of resources and time constrained our ability to obtain a control group similar to the one used by Robinson. However, the control sample we selected was operational and reasonably accurate. It provided a frame of reference against which parties interested in SBDC evaluation, particularly legislators, could find meaningful comparisons. Elstrott's use of the term "stability" as a basis for criticism of our control group is not very meaningful, although the underlying idea--that statewide averages iclude very large as well as small firms--is a valid, although rather obvious, point. Both fact and previous research, however, suggest that this problem was not serious enough to invalidate our findings. For example, Pelham's comparisons of statewide averages in sales, employment, and profit growth with averages for small business (less than 20 employees) within that statewide database suggest that the differences are not significant, at least in Iowa. In addition, it is possible that, if bias did exist, the volatility of our client sample (as compared to statewide averages) actually lowered our impact estimates. …

R. Ryan Nelson

Papers

Strategies for end-user computing: an integrative framework

A comparative evaluation of the impact of electronic and voice mail on organizational communication

The Impact of SBDC Consulting Activities

Managing End-User Computing as a Value-Added Resource

Evaluating the Impact of SBDC Consulting: A Reply to Elstrott