Recent worldwide interest in building a decentralized, hydrogen-based energy economy has refocused attention on the solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) as a potential source of efficient, environmentally friendly, fuel-versatile electric power. Due to its high operating temperature, the SOFC offers several potential advantages over polymer-based fuel cells, including reversible electrode reactions, low internal resistance, high tolerance to typical catalyst poisons, production of high-quality waste heat for (among other uses) reformation of hydrocarbon fuels, as well as the possibility of burning hydrocarbon fuels directly. Today, SOFCs are much closer to commercial reality than they were 20 years ago, due largely to technological advances in electrode material composition, microstructure control, thin-film ceramic fabrication, and stack and system design. These advances have led to dozens of active SOFC development programs in both stationary and mobile power and contributed to commercialization or development in a number of related technologies, including gas sensors,1 solid-state electrolysis devices,2 and iontransport membranes for gas separation and partial oxidation.3 Many reviews are available which summarize the technological advances made in SOFCs over the last 15-35 yearssreaders who are primarily interested in knowing the state-of-the art in materials, design, and fabrication (including the electrodes) are encouraged to consult these reviews.4-12 This review focuses on the factors governing SOFC cathode performancesadvances we have made over † Dedicated to Brian Steele, 1929-2003. Researcher, Entrepreneur, Consensus Seeker. 4791 Chem. Rev. 2004, 104, 4791−4843

Factors Governing Oxygen Reduction in Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Cathodes

Progress in material selection for solid oxide fuel cell technology: A review

The composition and microstructure of cathode materials has a large impact on the performance of solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs). Rational design of materials composition through controlled oxygen nonstoichiometry and defect aspects can enhance the ionic and electronic conductivities as well as the catalytic properties for oxygen reduction in the cathode. Cell performance can be further improved through microstructure optimization to extend the triple-phase boundaries. A major degradation mechanism in SOFCs is poisoning of the cathode by chromium species when chromium-containing alloys are used as the interconnect material. This article reviews recent developments in SOFC cathodes with a principal emphasis on the choice of materials. In addition, the reaction mechanism of oxygen reduction is also addressed. The development of Cr-tolerant cathodes for intermediate temperature solid oxide fuel cells, and a possible mechanism of Cr deposition at cathodes are briefly reviewed as well. Finally, this review will be concluded with some perspectives on the future of research directions in this area.

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Cathode materials for solid oxide fuel cells: a review

One of the challenges in improving the performance and cost-effectiveness of solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) is the development of suitable interconnect materials. The interconnect material is in contact with both the anode and the cathode, and thus must be stable with both electrode materials and in oxidizing and reducing environments. The interconnect material must also maintain a low electrical resistance during cell operation to avoid decreased efficiency due to ohmic losses. The common feature of the two approaches (metallic and ceramic) to the development of interconnect materials is the presence of chromium. The most promising ceramic materials are chromites, while the most promising metallic materials are chromia-forming alloys. The focus of this paper is comparison of metallic alloys for use as interconnects in solid oxide fuel cells, in terms of properties including oxidation resistance, volatility, electrical resistance and thermal expansion.

Metallic interconnects for solid oxide fuel cells

The high-temperature solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) is the most efficient and environmentally friendly energy conversion technology to generate electricity from fuels such as hydrogen and natural gas as compared to the traditional thermal power generation plants. In the last 20–30 years, there has been significant progress in the materials development and stack technologies in SOFC. Among the electrode materials, lanthanum strontium manganite (LSM) perovskites, till today, are the most investigated and probably the most important electrode materials in SOFCs. The objective of this article is to review and update the development, understanding, and achievements of the LSM-based materials in SOFC. The structure, nonstoichiometry, defect model, and in particular the relation between the microstructure, their properties (electrical, thermal, mechanical, chemical, and interfacial), and electrochemical performance and performance stability are critically reviewed. Finally, challenges and prospects of LSM-based materials as cathodes for intermediate and low-temperature SOFCs are discussed.

Development of lanthanum strontium manganite perovskite cathode materials of solid oxide fuel cells: a review

Alloys protected from corrosion by a chromia scale and LaCrO{sub 3}-based perovskites are used as materials for the interconnect of solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs). The chromium vaporization of these materials was studied by thermochemical modeling. Partial pressures of the vaporizing species were determined for different O{sub 2} and H{sub 2}O concentrations in the oxidizing gas. CrO{sub 2}(OH){sub 2}(g) and CrO{sub 3}(g) are the most abundant species in air with and without humidity, respectively. The potential of the Cr-containing vapor species for the degradation of the electrical properties of an SOFC was analyzed by thermodynamic computations. The electrochemical reduction of the Cr-containing vapor species at the cathode/electrolyte/gas phase boundary can lead to polarization losses.

R. Weiß

Papers

Chromium Vapor Species over Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Interconnect Materials and Their Potential for Degradation Processes