Enzymes as industrial biocatalysts offer numerous advantages over traditional chemical processes with respect to sustainability and process efficiency. Enzyme catalysis has been scaled up for commercial processes in the pharmaceutical, food and beverage industries, although further enhancements in stability and biocatalyst functionality are required for optimal biocatalytic processes in the energy sector for biofuel production and in natural gas conversion. The technical barriers associated with the implementation of immobilized enzymes suggest that a multidisciplinary approach is necessary for the development of immobilized biocatalysts applicable in such industrial-scale processes. Specifically, the overlap of technical expertise in enzyme immobilization, protein and process engineering will define the next generation of immobilized biocatalysts and the successful scale-up of their induced processes. This review discusses how biocatalysis has been successfully deployed, how enzyme immobilization can improve industrial processes, as well as focuses on the analysis tools critical for the multi-scale implementation of enzyme immobilization for increased product yield at maximum market profitability and minimum logistical burden on the environment and user.

Industrial Applications of Enzymes: Recent Advances, Techniques, and Outlooks

Spin-state transitions in metal complexes which are driven by a change of temperature T or pressure p are always associated with a considerable reorganization of molecular geometry. The change involves metal-ligand bond lengths R, bond angles, and a variation of ligand orientation. In particular, the elongation 4R by up to ∼ 10% occurring in the course of the LS → HS conversion produces an expansion of molecular volume ΔV ≌ 25 A3 per metal atom. The average crystal structure for given values of T and p is reproduced by the fractional occupancy of the individual structures of the high-spin (HS) and low-spin (LS) isomer. The transitions are reasonably well described by a number of theoretical models which are equivalent to the Bragg and Williams approximation of the Ising model. The dynamics of the spin-state transitions in solution, based on measurements by ultrasonic and photo-perturbation techniques, is in general rapid with rate constants between 4 × 105 and 3 × 108 s−1. Similar results are obtained for the spin conversion in solid complexes where the line shape analysis of Mossbauer spectra based on the theory of Blume and Tjon is applied. The dynamics may be rationalized employing one-dimensional cross sections through Gibbs free-energy surfaces G = G(R), an alternative being the comparison of the results with quantum-mechanical calculations for a radiationless non-adiabatic multiphonon process.

Nature and dynamics of the spin-state interconversion in metal complexes

A variety of organisms, such as bacteria, fungi, and plants, produce secondary metabolites, also known as natural products. Natural products have been a prolific source and an inspiration for numerous medical agents with widely divergent chemical structures and biological activities, including antimicrobial, immunosuppressive, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory activities, many of which have been developed as treatments and have potential therapeutic applications for human diseases. Aside from natural products, the recent development of recombinant DNA technology has sparked the development of a wide array of biopharmaceutical products, such as recombinant proteins, offering significant advances in treating a broad spectrum of medical illnesses and conditions. Herein, we will introduce the structures and diverse biological activities of natural products and recombinant proteins that have been exploited as valuable molecules in medicine, agriculture and insect control. In addition, we will explore past and ongoing efforts along with achievements in the development of robust and promising microorganisms as cell factories to produce biologically active molecules. Furthermore, we will review multi-disciplinary and comprehensive engineering approaches directed at improving yields of microbial production of natural products and proteins and generating novel molecules. Throughout this article, we will suggest ways in which microbial-derived biologically active molecular entities and their analogs could continue to inspire the development of new therapeutic agents in academia and industry.

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A Review of the Microbial Production of Bioactive Natural Products and Biologics.

Utilization of polymers as biomaterials has greatly impacted the advancement of modern medicine. Specifically, polymeric biomaterials that are biodegradable provide the significant advantage of being able to be broken down and removed after they have served their function. Applications are wide ranging with degradable polymers being used clinically as surgical sutures and implants. To fit functional demand, materials with desired physical, chemical, biological, biomechanical, and degradation properties must be selected. Fortunately, a wide range of natural and synthetic degradable polymers has been investigated for biomedical applications with novel materials constantly being developed to meet new challenges. This review summarizes the most recent advances in the field over the past 4 years, specifically highlighting new and interesting discoveries in tissue engineering and drug delivery applications.

Biomedical applications of biodegradable polymers

Organometallic Fluorides: Compounds Containing Carbon−Metal−Fluorine Fragments of d-Block Metals†

Biocatalytic potential of microorganisms have been employed for centuries to produce bread, wine, vinegar and other common products without understanding the biochemical basis of their ingredients. Microbial enzymes have gained interest for their widespread uses in industries and medicine owing to their stability, catalytic activity, and ease of production and optimization than plant and animal enzymes. The use of enzymes in various industries (e.g., food, agriculture, chemicals, and pharmaceuticals) is increasing rapidly due to reduced processing time, low energy input, cost effectiveness, nontoxic and eco-friendly characteristics. Microbial enzymes are capable of degrading toxic chemical compounds of industrial and domestic wastes (phenolic compounds, nitriles, amines etc.) either via degradation or conversion. Here in this review, we highlight and discuss current technical and scientific involvement of microorganisms in enzyme production and their present status in worldwide enzyme market.

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Microbial enzymes: industrial progress in 21st century

Microorganisms are a promising source of an enormous number of natural products, which have made significant contribution to almost each sphere of human, plant and veterinary life. Natural compounds obtained from microorganisms have proved their value in nutrition, agriculture and healthcare. Primary metabolites, such as amino acids, enzymes, vitamins, organic acids and alcohol are used as nutritional supplements as well as in the production of industrial commodities through biotransformation. Whereas, secondary metabolites are organic compounds that are largely obtained by extraction from plants or tissues. They are primarily used in the biopharmaceutical industry due to their capability to reduce infectious diseases in human beings and animals and thus increase the life expectancy. Additionally, microorganisms and their products inevitably play a significant role in sustainable agriculture development.

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Microbial metabolites in nutrition, healthcare and agriculture

1-(2-Pyridylazo)-2-phenanthrol forms two distinct complexes with cobalt(II). Isolation from ethanolic medium yields green coloured CoL2, · 4C2 HSOH, which shows antiferromagnetic interaction between cobalt(H) ions of S=1/2 (J=49 cm−1). The green coloured complex dissolves in chloroform to give a pink solution yielding pink crystals of CoL2 · 4C2 H5 OH · 1/3 CHCl3, which involves temperature dependent equilibrium between doublet (S=1/2) and quartet (S=3/2) states.

Rajendra Singh

Papers

Microbial enzymes: industrial progress in 21st century

Microbial metabolites in nutrition, healthcare and agriculture

Magnetic exchange interaction and spin-state equilibrium in cobalt(ii) complexes of 1(2-pyridylazo)-2-phenanthrol

EPR spectra of a spin-crossover iron(III) dithiocarbamate

Isolation and characterization of bis(η-methylcyclopntadienyl)dihalotitanium(IV)