In recent years, the magnitude, consistency, and stability across time of cognitive sex differences have been questioned. The present study examined these issues in the context of spatial abilities. A meta-analysis of 286 effect sizes from a variety of spatial ability measures was conducted. Effect sizes were partitioned by the specific test used and by a number of variables related to the experimental procedure in order to achieve homogeneity. Results showed that sex differences are significant in several tests but that some intertest differences exist. Partial support was found for the notion that the magnitude of sex differences has decreased in recent years. Finally, it was found that the age of emergence of sex differences depends on the test used. Results are discussed with regard to their implications for the study of sex differences in spatial abilities.

Magnitude of sex differences in spatial abilities: a meta-analysis and consideration of critical variables.

Dual functional brain asymmetry refers to the notion that in most individuals the left cerebral hemisphere is specialized for language functions, whereas the right cerebral hemisphere is more important than the left for the perception, construction, and recall of stimuli that are difficult to verbalize. In the last twenty years there have been scattered reports of sex differences in degree of hemispheric specialization. This review provides a critical framework within which two related topics are discussed: Do meaningful sex differences in verbal or spatial cerebral lateralization exist? and, if so, Is the brain of one sex more symmetrically organized than the other? Data gathered on right-handed adults are examined from clinical studies of patients with unilateral brain lesions; from dichotic listening, tachistoscopic, and sensorimotor studies of functional asymmetries in non-brain-damaged subjects; from anatomical and electrophysiological investigations, as well as from the developmental literature. Retrospective and descriptive findings predominate over prospective and experimental methodologies. Nevertheless, there is an impressive accummulation of evidence suggesting that the male brain may be more asymmetrically organized than the female brain, both for verbal and nonverbal functions. These trends are rarely found in childhood but are often significant in the mature organism.

Sex differences in human brain asymmetry: a critical survey

The relations among wayfinding strategy use, sense of direction, sex, familiarity, and wayfinding ability

Gender differences in Morris water maze performance depend on task parameters.

Spatial visualisation ability is a subset of spatial ability - one of the factors of human
intelligence structure. Spatial visualisation ability has been defined as, " the ability to
mentally manipulate, rotate, twist, or invert pictorially presented stimulus objects." (McGee,
1979, p. 893). This multi-faceted ability helps engineers including civil engineers to
conceptualise links between reality and the abstract model of that reality. For example, in the
analysis of a loaded beam structure, the deflected shape of the beam is the reality and the
mathematical equation chosen (often unseen in a computer design package) to represent this
deflected shape is the abstract model of that reality. A civil engineer needs first to have an
intuitive understanding of the interactive relationships among structural components before he
could begin to predict the deflected shape, which leads to the identification of the abstract
model. This intuitive understanding is also essential to civil engineers in another way. It helps
them in visualising, predicting, designing and checking for the worst possible combination of
loads on a given structure. In the design of a reinforced concrete design for example, the
ability to visualise aids the engineer in the prediction of critical loading conditions, which is
necessary in reaching an adequate reinforcement design.
Spatial visualisation ability has also been found to be essential to a student's success in some
engineering related subjects such as calculus (Winkle, 1997), mathematics, (Battista,Wheatley and Talsma, 1989), engineering drawing (Sorby and Baartmans, 1996a) and
computer-aided design (Sorby, 1999). Early indication for a positive relationship between this
ability and structural design has also been found. Alias (2000) carried out a learning task
analysis on the design of a reinforced concrete column - an area that demands a wide variety
of structural design skills - and discovered that spatial skills are pre-requisite to the learning of
column design suggesting that spatial visualisation ability may be essential to the success of
structural design.
Overall, spatial visualisation ability may be critical to learning and problem solving in civil
engineering especially to the learning of subject matter that demands spatial strategies such as
structural design, engineering mathematics and soil mechanics. There has also been some
suggestions that spatial ability is relevant to problem solving that is not dependent on spatial
strategies proposed by Roberts, Gilmore and Wood (1997). Roberts, et al. proposed that in
cases where non-spatial strategies are required, spatial ability influences the degree to which a
problem solver is able to develop and evaluate these strategies.
In summary, spatial visualisation ability appears to be necessary to problem solving in
engineering related areas that requires spatial as well as non-spatial strategies. Therefore, a
better understanding of this ability should be potentially beneficial to the engineering
education and profession.

Effect of Instructions on Spatial Visualisation Ability in Civil Engineering Students

Sex differences in spatial ability may be related to different problem-solving methods. Two spatial tests, Choosing A Path and Witkin's Rod and Frame Test, and related strategy questionnaires were given to 50 male and 50 female adults. Multivariate analyses of variance on the strategy questionnaires were significant. Women were more likely to use concrete and unorganized methods and to give up or skip problems. Spearman correlations between the males' and females' rank orders of strategies were high and significant, so that both similarities and differences between the sexes were demonstrated.

Randie Hogeland

Papers

Spatial Problem-Solving Strategies as Functions of Sex: