Biodiesel is produced through the process of transesterification of different edible and non-edible oils and animal fats. The process takes place either in the presence of a homogeneous or heterogeneous catalyst. A suitable catalyst is selected based on the amount of free fatty acid (FFA) content present in the oil. The major difference between homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts is that the homogeneous catalysts are insensitive to the amount of free fatty acids present in the oil. Also, homogeneous catalysts are toxic, highly flammable, and corrosive. Besides, the use of homogeneous catalysts produces soaps as a by-product and a bulk of wastewater which requires additional pretreatment methods and expenses for proper disposal. The research on the biodiesel synthesis in the presence of heterogeneous catalysts (carbon-based catalysts) is continuously studied to achieve a suitable process to produce biodiesel and to improve fuel quality on an industrial scale. Heterogeneous catalysts have great significance in the biodiesel production because of their simple and less expensive manufacturing process, ease of separation, and high reusability. They can be prepared easily by functionalizing the carbon surface with acid or base. Carbon-based catalysts have a high surface area and porosity that can enhance the rate of the esterification/transesterification process. Also, solid acid catalysts can convert the low-quality feedstocks to biodiesel in the presence of active acidic sites. Besides, carbon-based catalysts can be produced through waste e.g. sugarcane bagasse and their use make the production of biodiesel “Greener” one. This review paper is mainly based on the utilization of different catalysts derived from waste biomass in the biodiesel. Under optimum conditions biodiesel (FAME) yields 90%–99% were reported in the literature.

A review on the waste biomass derived catalysts for biodiesel production

Cross-disciplinary approaches towards smart, resilient and sustainable circular economy

Comparative analysis of urban ecological management models incorporating low-carbon transformation

Agriculture has become a major user of global freshwater resources. This study measured the consumptive water use of 15 selected crops (cash crops, vegetables, and fruits) in Malaysia. The results indicated that the green water consumption footprint (129.8 m/ton -1586.0 m/ton) was higher compared to the blue water consumption footprint (21.0 m/ton 931.0 m/ton) for all 15 crops in Malaysia. Paddy crop had the highest total water consumption footprint for both off and main seasons with 2265 m/ton and 2255 m/ton, respectively, due to the cultivation practices under flood conditions. The water consumption footprint depends on the crop yield, implying that th e higher the crop yield, the lower the value is. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the assessment of the water consumption footprint of crop production in Southeast Asia from 2007 to 2017 (10 years). The paper also highlights and discusses a feasibility study for the water consumption footprint of crops and future outlooks in Southeast Asia following an LCA-based approach.

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Estimating the country-level water consumption footprint of selected crop production.

The evaluation of GHG emissions from Shanghai municipal wastewater treatment plants based on IPCC and operational data integrated methods (ODIM)

Greenhouse gas emissions inventory data acquisition and analytics for low carbon cities

GHG evaluation and mitigation planning for low carbon city case study: Dan Sai Municipality

Carbon footprint adaptation on green supply chain and logistics of papaya in Yasothon Province using geographic information system

Following Thailand’s policy framework on bioenergy as stipulated in the Alternative Energy Development Plan (AEDP), ethanol use is encouraged and thereby results in increasing cultivation of sugarcane and other ethanol plants Inadvertently, the use of scarce water resources has increased in tandem This research aims to assess water footprint (WF) of sugarcane-based bioethanol production in Thailand The study consists of into two parts, ie, cultivation and ethanol production processes The study result shows WF of sugarcane of 226 m 3 /ton, which consists of green WF of 146 m 3 /ton, blue WF of 31 m 3 /ton, and grey WF of 49 m 3 /ton Based on the AEDP ethanol production targets of 3, 62 and 9 million m 3 /day by 2011, 2016, and 2022, demand of water is thus anticipated at 18,041; 37,787 and 54,853 million m 3 /year, respectively The promotion of ethanol use in such an agricultural country as Thailand is definitely poised to cause the competition for water resources in plant growing for human consumption and energy production The results of this study can be applied to drawing up the future policy on water and to producing bioethanol in the manner that is the most efficient use of water resources Keywords: Water footprint, sugarcane, Bioethanol, water resource, Thailand

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Water Footprint of Bioethanol Production from Sugarcane in Thailand

The objective of this study was to develop new indicators that reflect economic growth by taking into account the impact on the environment and natural resources as well. The indicator calculated by subtracting environmental cost from the “Gross Domestic Product (GDP)” and is used in the assessment of the GDP by taking into consideration the cost of natural resources and the environment, called “green GDP”. This study uses Life Cycle Assessment, which is a technique used to assess the environmental impact of sugar industry from raw materials, distribution, production, and waste management. The system boundary for the life cycle inventory are cultivation, planting, transportation and sugar production. The results of the green GDP and GDP is difference about 6–12% due to the depletion cost resulting from the use of natural resources between 9.0–9.52 $/ton of sugar production and the degradation cost caused by the airborne emission and waterborne emission between 37–57 $/ton of sugar production. The quantity of Total Suspended Particulate (TSP) generated from the sugar production process is the main causing the environmental cost about 55%. In order to solve environmental causes, the policy making as Circular Economy Strategies can be used to meet the sustainable development in the future.

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Ratchayuda Kongboon

Papers

Greenhouse gas emissions inventory data acquisition and analytics for low carbon cities

GHG evaluation and mitigation planning for low carbon city case study: Dan Sai Municipality

Carbon footprint adaptation on green supply chain and logistics of papaya in Yasothon Province using geographic information system

Water Footprint of Bioethanol Production from Sugarcane in Thailand

Green GDP Indicator with Application to Life Cycle of Sugar Industry in Thailand