Motor learning deficits in aged rats are correlated with loss of cerebellar noradrenergic function

Purpose The purpose of this research was to examine the effects of presenting augmented information to children with cerebral palsy during practice of a novel motor skill. Methods Single-subject designs with nonconcurrent baselines were used to study improvements in performance. Thirteen children with cerebral palsy were randomly assigned to one of three practice protocols and performed 36 ten-second trials to learn to move a Pedalo, a therapeutic exercise vehicle, backward. Each protocol involved a variable mix of practice under the following conditions: no augmented information, knowledge of performance, and knowledge of performance enhanced by a cognitive strategy. Performance was measured by changes in backward displacement (cm) of the Pedalo across trials. Results All 13 subjects demonstrated improvement in performance across phases. However, only eight subjects (62%) demonstrated a significant improvement in performance when the baseline and retention phases were compared. Of these eight subjects, one demonstrated significant improvement in performance with practice alone, two when provided with knowledge of performance, and five when provided with knowledge of performance and a cognitive strategy. Conclusions This study suggests that children with cerebral palsy benefit greatly from practice of motor tasks and that some of these children may benefit from the use of cognitive strategies to enhance the role of knowledge of performance during practice of motor skills. However, sufficient time is required to successfully integrate the feedback into performance.

The effects of knowledge of performance and cognitive strategies on motor skill learning in children with cerebral palsy.

Although there is evidence for age-related changes in both cognition and motor control, very little is known about the effect of age on learning of new motor skills. The present experiment addressed the interaction between aging and the role of knowledge of results (KR) on a motor learning task. Using a three-segment task on which each segment had specific timing goals, three different manipulations of relative frequency of information about performance were compared in younger and older adults. The three conditions were (a) 100% KR in which information about performance on each segment was provided after every trial, (b) 67% KR in which the performance information was faded over trials, and (c) 67% KR in which the performance information was faded over the segments within each trial. Following 90 acquisition trials, all subjects performed retention, transfer, and reacquisition tests. There were age-related differences for movement accuracy and consistency on acquisition and on the retention tests but not on the transfer test. However, none of these differences interacted with the frequency of KR manipulations. Surprisingly, there was no effect due to the fading schedules of KR. In general, these results indicated that younger and older adults use KR in a similar way to learn a motor skill.

Effects of Aging and Reduced Relative Frequency of Knowledge of Results on Learning a Motor Skill

Developing skilled performance of lumbar spine manipulation

This study examined the nature and amount of feedback that more successful and less successful high school varsity volleyball coaches gave to their starting and nonstarting volleyball players. Two of the four coaches studied were considered more successful and two were considered less successful, based on previous regular season win-loss percentages. Players of all the coaches (N=41) were also used as subjects and identified as having either a starting or nonstarting role on the team. All subjects were observed on three occasions for 30 minutes per observation during regular season practice. The Cole Descriptive Analysis System (Cole-DAS) was used to observe coach augmented feedback as it was given to individual players in response to skilled performance. A 2 × 2 multivariate analysis of variance was used to describe the effects of (a) success of the coach, (b) role of the player, and (c) both success of the coach and role of the player on the dependent variables of coach augmented feedback. Results indic...

Descriptive Analysis of Coach Augmented Feedback Given to High School Varsity Female Volleyball Players

The experiment was conducted to determine the effect of knowledge of results on anticipatory timing and subsequently on motor planning by 18 first and 28 third grade children. The study was designed as a 2 (grades 1 and 3) × 2 (treatment groups—knowledge and no knowledge of results) × 3 (trial blocks—5 trials per block) factorial with repeated measures on the last factor. Absolute, constant, and variable errors were analyzed. Knowledge of results improved absolute errors associated with anticipatory timing in both age groups. First graders showed little improvement in timing without knowledge of results, while the third graders showed more improvement by reducing absolute errors. The third graders were more consistent in reducing timing errors than first graders. Conclusions support the prediction that knowledge of results influences anticipatory timing by both age groups.

Effect of Knowledge of Results on Anticipation Timing by Young Children

An investigation was conducted to compare the effect of practice on the motor performance of older adults with that of college-aged adults. The temporal location of knowledge of results was varied during the practice in an attempt to ascertain the relationship between information storage/processing capacity and practice effect. Analysis of variance revealed motor performance proficiency differences favoring the younger adults but no difference between age groups in the pattern of performance change associated with practice. The proficiency differences could partially be explained in terms of older adults' information processing limitations.

The effect of practice and temporal location of knowledge of results on the motor performance of older adults.

Individuals learned a motor skill having temporal and spatial dimensions. Two groups, determined by amount of allotted processing time (3 or 6 sec.), were tested. Analyzed data were specific to absolute and variable errors associated with movement. A series of 2 (post-knowledge delay) × 3 (trial blocks) repeated-measures multivariate analysis indicated reduction of errors (both temporal and spatial) by groups. Follow-up analysis favored the 6-sec. group while the 3-sec. group learned only the accuracy portion of the task.

http://pms.sagepub.com/content/57/1/43.full.pdf

Processing, Knowledge of Results, and a Multi-Dimensional Task

To be of value, a psychomotor instrument must adequately measure error reduction in a consistent manner. So, the Bassin Anticipation Timer was examined for these properties. A runway speed of 5 mph was used. Error reduction over trial blocks and the internal consistency of responding by 20 subjects were determined. These subjects were college students between the ages of 19 and 25 yr. (M = 23.9, SD = 2.86). Each one received 20 trials to reduce timing errors. Before each trial, a verbal warning which coincided with a ready light on the Bassin runway was given. Three sec. after each response the subject was told the direction and magnitude of any errors in unidentifiable units (msec.) . A one-way, repeated-measures analysis of variance with a p o ~ t hoc Duncan test was utilized to assess change in scores. Reduction of errors over trial blocks ( 4 trials per block) was found (F4.70 = 14.16, p < .001). The Duncan procedure indicated a reduction in errors from Trial block 1 to all others, from Trial block 2 to blocks 4 and 5, and from Trial block 3 to 5. The internal consistency (odd/even reliability) of .835 and Cronbach ( 1947 ) alpha of .823 were significant ( p < .01). Over-all, the Bassin Anticipation Timer was a useful instrument for measuring reduction of errors. Learning occurred and the responses of subjects were internally consistent.

Note on the Statistical Properties of the Bassin Anticipation Timer

The purpose of this study was to determine if transit reaction or anticipation of coincidence could be improved by allotting more processing time. 120 subjects were randomly assigned to one of six treatment groups. The groups were formed by changing the temporal location of knowledge of results within the research paradigm, specifically to control the possible confounding from the inter-response interval. Data were analyzed via a series of two 6 (treatment conditions) × 5 (trial blocks) factorial analyses of variance, with repeated measures on the last factor for absolute and variable errors. The post-knowledge delay interval was the most important time of the paradigm, and transit reaction was positively related to duration of processing.

Reno J. Ramella

Papers

Effect of Knowledge of Results on Anticipation Timing by Young Children

The effect of practice and temporal location of knowledge of results on the motor performance of older adults.

Processing, Knowledge of Results, and a Multi-Dimensional Task

Note on the Statistical Properties of the Bassin Anticipation Timer

Importance of the post-knowledge delay interval on transit reaction