This paper presents a general strain theory of crime and delinquency that is capable of overcoming the criticisms of previous strain theories. In the first section, strain theory is distinguished from social control and differential association/social learning theory. In the second section, the three major types of strain are described: (1) strain as the actual or anticipated failure to achieve positively valued goals, (2) strain as the actual or anticipated removal of positively valued stimuli, and (3) strain as the actual or anticipated presentation of negatively valued stimuli. In the third section, guidelines for the measurement of strain are presented. And in the fourth section, the major adaptations to strain are described, and thcwe factors influencing the choice of delinquent versus nondelinquent adaptations are discussed. After dominating deviance research in the 196Os, strain theory came under heavy attack in the 1970s (Bernard, 1984; Cole, 1975), with several prominent researchers suggesting that the theory be abandoned (Hirschi, 1969; Kornhauser, 1978). Strain theory has survived those attacks, but its influence is much diminished (see Agnew, 1985a; Bernard, 1984; Farnworth and Leiber, 1989). In particular, variables derived from strain theory now play a very limited role in explanations of crime/delinquency. Several recent causal models of delinquency, in fact, either entirely exchde strain variables or assign them a small role (e.g., Elliott et al., 1985; Johnson, 1979; Massey and Krohn, 1986; Thornberry, 1987; Tonry et al., 1991). Causal models of crime/delinquency are dominated, instead, by variables derived from differential association/social learning theory and social control theory. This paper argues that strain theory has a central role to play in explanations of crime/delinquency, but that the theory has to be substantially revised to play this role. Most empirical studies of strain theory continue to rely on the strain models developed by Merton (1938), A. Cohen (1955), and Cloward and Ohlin (1960). In recent years, however, a wealth of research in several fields has questioned certain of the assumptions underlying those theories and pointed to new directions for the development of strain theory. Most notable in this area is the research on stress in medical sociology and psychology, on equity/justice in social psychology, and on aggression in psychology-particularly recent versions of frustration-aggression and social

Foundation for a General Strain Theory of Crime and Delinquency

Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling (2nd ed.)

Measuring Health: A Guide to Rating Scales and Questionnaires

Counseling psychologists face many approaches from which to choose when they conduct a qualitative research study. This article focuses on the processes of selecting, contrasting, and implementing five different qualitative approaches. Based on an extended example related to test interpretation by counselors, clients, and communities, this article provides a detailed discussion about five qualitative approaches— narrative research; case study research; grounded theory; phenomenology; and participatory action research—as alternative qualitative procedures useful in understanding test interpretation. For each approach, the authors offer perspectives about historical origins, definition, variants, and the procedures of research.

Qualitative Research Designs: Selection and Implementation

The authors offer a framework for conceptualizing collective identity that aims to clarify and make distinctions among dimensions of identification that have not always been clearly articulated. Elements of collective identification included in this framework are self-categorization, evaluation, importance, attachment and sense of interdependence, social embeddedness, behavioral involvement, and content and meaning. For each element, the authors take note of different labels that have been used to identify what appear to be conceptually equivalent constructs, provide examples of studies that illustrate the concept, and suggest measurement approaches. Further, they discuss the potential links between elements and outcomes and how context moderates these relationships. The authors illustrate the utility of the multidimensional organizing framework by analyzing the different configuration of elements in 4 major theories of identification.

An organizing framework for collective identity: Articulation and significance of multidimensionality

Caregiving and the experience of subjective and objective burden.

Encyclopedia of sociology

The authors explore the changing dynamics of gendered familial caregiving in urban China within the context of economic reforms and the continued cultural influence of xiao (filial piety). Data collected in China through interviews with 110 familial caregivers were used to examine cultural and structural influences on the caregiving behavior of adult children. Results from multiple regression analyses provide evidence of a gendered division of parental care tasks, a decline in the patrilocal tradition of caregiving, and a strong social pressure that influences caregiving behavior. Structural factors linked to caregiving performance included family size, lack of pensions for elders, and caregivers’ employment status and income. Findings portend deleterious effects for the women who are now caregivers as they are likely to live longer but be more financially dependent and have fewer children available to help them.

Gender And Elder Care In China: The Influence of Filial Piety and Structural Constraints

Family units (N = 541) of impaired elderly persons and caregivers were randomly assigned to a control group or one of five treatment groups eligible for a variety of respite or educational services. After 12 months of service eligibility, caregivers of elderly persons remaining in the community reported lower levels of subjective burden. Services appeared to delay nursing home placement among families with adult child caregivers, but encouraged placement by spouse caregivers.

The Effects of Alternative Support Strategies on Family Caregiving

Objectives. The goal of this study was to explore the relationship between communication problems associated with dementia and caregiver burden, within the context of problem behaviors and cognitive and functional abilities of the care recipient. Methods. A scale on communication problems associated with dementia was developed and administered to 89 family caregivers. Participants also completed measures of care-recipient cognitive and functional status, problem behavior, and caregiver burden (demand, stress, and objective burden). Results. Analyses using structural equation modeling showed that care-recipient cognitive and functional status indirectly predicted problem behaviors via communication problems. The status indicators also directly predicted demand burden.Inaddition,problembehaviorsmediatedtherelationshipbetweencommunicationproblemsandallformsofburden. Discussion. The study findings not only lend further support to the existing literature that has documented problem behaviors as strong predictors of burden but also emphasize the importance of communication problems in the caregiving process.

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Rhonda J. V. Montgomery

Papers

Caregiving and the experience of subjective and objective burden.

Encyclopedia of sociology

Gender And Elder Care In China: The Influence of Filial Piety and Structural Constraints

The Effects of Alternative Support Strategies on Family Caregiving

Investigating the Effects of Communication Problems on Caregiver Burden