The Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions is the official document that describes in detail the process of preparing and maintaining Cochrane systematic reviews on the effects of healthcare interventions.

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Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions

Background. Qualitative research explores complex phenomena encountered by clinicians, health care providers, policy makers and consumers. Although partial checklists are available, no consolidated reporting framework exists for any type of qualitative design. Objective. To develop a checklist for explicit and comprehensive reporting of qualitative studies (indepth interviews and focus groups). Methods. We performed a comprehensive search in Cochrane and Campbell Protocols, Medline, CINAHL, systematic reviews of qualitative studies, author or reviewer guidelines of major medical journals and reference lists of relevant publications for existing checklists used to assess qualitative studies. Seventy-six items from 22 checklists were compiled into a comprehensive list. All items were grouped into three domains: (i) research team and reflexivity, (ii) study design and (iii) data analysis and reporting. Duplicate items and those that were ambiguous, too broadly defined and impractical to assess were removed. Results. Items most frequently included in the checklists related to sampling method, setting for data collection, method of data collection, respondent validation of findings, method of recording data, description of the derivation of themes and inclusion of supporting quotations. We grouped all items into three domains: (i) research team and reflexivity, (ii) study design and (iii) data analysis and reporting. Conclusions. The criteria included in COREQ, a 32-item checklist, can help researchers to report important aspects of the research team, study methods, context of the study, findings, analysis and interpretations.

Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research (COREQ): a 32-item checklist for interviews and focus groups

자연주의적 탐구조사(Naturalistic Inquiry)

A general inductive approach for analysis of qualitative evaluation data is described. The purposes for using an inductive approach are to (a) condense raw textual data into a brief, summary format; (b) establish clear links between the evaluation or research objectives and the summary findings derived from the raw data; and (c) develop a framework of the underlying structure of expe- riences or processes that are evident in the raw data. The general inductive approach provides an easily used and systematic set of procedures for analyzing qualitative data that can produce reliable and valid findings. Although the general inductive approach is not as strong as some other analytic strategies for theory or model development, it does provide a simple, straightforward approach for deriving findings in the context of focused evaluation questions. Many evaluators are likely to find using a general inductive approach less complicated than using other approaches to qualitative data analysis.

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A General Inductive Approach for Analyzing Qualitative Evaluation Data

This is the second in a series of three articles 

Contrary to popular perception, qualitative research can produce vast amounts of data. These may include verbatim notes or transcribed recordings of interviews or focus groups, jotted notes and more detailed “fieldnotes” of observational research, a diary or chronological account, and the researcher's reflective notes made during the research. These data are not necessarily small scale: transcribing a typical single interview takes several hours and can generate 20–40 pages of single spaced text. Transcripts and notes are the raw data of the research. They provide a descriptive record of the research, but they cannot provide explanations. The researcher has to make sense of the data by sifting and interpreting them.

#### Summary points

Qualitative research produces large amounts of textual data in the form of transcripts and observational fieldnotes

The systematic and rigorous preparation and analysis of these data is time consuming and labour intensive

Data analysis often takes place alongside data collection to allow questions to be refined and new avenues of inquiry to develop

Textual data are typically explored inductively using content analysis to generate categories and explanations; software packages can help with analysis but should not be viewed as short cuts to rigorous and systematic analysis

High quality analysis of qualitative data depends on the skill, vision, and integrity of the researcher; it should not be left to the novice

In much qualitative research the analytical process begins during data collection as the data already gathered are analysed and shape the ongoing data collection. This sequential analysis1 or interim analysis2 has the advantage of allowing the researcher to go back and refine questions, develop hypotheses, and pursue emerging avenues of inquiry in further depth. Crucially, it also enables the researcher to look for deviant or negative cases; that is, …

https://faculty.washington.edu/jelmore/articles_online/Pope-QualResinHC-Ana.pdf

Analysing qualitative data

ed summaries and general concepts can be formulated, which may, upon further investigation, be found to be germane to a wider variety of settings. Case studies, therefore are not necessarily restricted

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Qualitative research methods in health technology assessment: a review of the literature.

Introduction - Gale Miller Context and Method in Qualitative Research PART ONE: VALIDITY AND PLAUSIBILITY IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH The Logics of Qualitative Research - David Silverman Producing 'Plausible Stories' - Kath M Melia Interviewing Student Nurses Techniques of Validation in Qualitative Research - Michael Bloor A Critical Commentary PART TWO: METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Accounts, Interviews and Observations - Robert Dingwall Problems with Interviewing - Isobel Bowler Experiences with Service Providers and Clients Contextualizing Texts - Gale Miller Studying Organizational Texts Using Computers in Strategic Qualitative Research - Tom Durkin Dramaturgy and Methodology - Scott A Hunt and Robert D Benford Research Techniques from a Theatrical Perspective PART THREE: ANALYZING INSTITUTIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS Network Analysis and Qualitative Research - Emmanuel Lazega A Method of Contextualization The Interactional Study of Organizations - Robert Dingwall and P M Strong A Critique and Reformulation Toward Ethnographies of Institutional Discourse - Gale Miller Proposal and Suggestions PART FOUR: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH AS A MORAL DISCOURSE Ethnography and Justice - David L Altheide and John M Johnson One Branch of Moral Science - P M Strong An Early Modern Approach to Public Policy Conclusion - Robert Dingwall The Moral Discourse of Interactionism

Context and Method in Qualitative Research

Introduction PART ONE: CONTRIBUTIONS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH There's More to Dying Than Death: Qualitative Research on the End-of-Life - Stefan Timmermans Healer-Patient Interaction: New Mediations in Clinical Relationships - Arthur W. Frank, Michael K. Corman, Jessica A. Gish and Paul Lawton Qualitative Contributions to the Study of Health Professions and Their Work - Johanne Collin Why Use Qualitative Methods to Study Health-Care Organizations? Insights from Multilevel Case Studies - Carol A. Caronna How Country Matters: Studying Health Policy in a Comparative Perspective - Sirpa Wrede Exploring Social Inequalities in Health: The Importance of Thinking Qualitatively - Gareth Williams and Eva Elliott PART TWO: THEORY Theory Matters in Qualitative Health Research - Mita Giacomini Ethnographic Approaches to Health and Development Research: The Contributions of Anthropology - Rebecca Prentice What Is Grounded Theory and Where Does It Come from? - Dorothy Pawluch and Elena Neiterman Qualitative Methods from Psychology - Helen Malson Conversation Analysis and Ethnomethodology: The Centrality of Interaction - Timothy Halkowski and Virginia Teas Gill Phenomenology - Carol L. McWilliam Studying Organizations: The Revival of Institutionalism - Karen Staniland History and Social Change in Health and Medicine - Claire Hooker PART THREE: COLLECTING AND ANALYZING DATA Qualitative Research Review and Synthesis - Jennie Popay and Sara Mallinson Qualitative Interviewing Techniques and Styles - Susan E. Kelly Focus Groups - Rosaline S. Barbour Fieldwork and Participant Observation - Davina Allen Video-Based Conversation Analysis - Ruth Parry Practising Discourse Analysis in Healthcare Settings - Srikant Sarangi Documents in Health Research - Lindsay Prior Participatory Action Research: Theoretical Perspectives on the Challenges of Researching Action - Louise Potvin, Sherri L. Bisset and Leah Walz Qualitative Research in Programme Evaluation - Isobel MacPherson and Linda McKie Auto-Ethnography: Making Sense of Personal Illness Journeys - Elizabeth Ettore Institutional Ethnography - Marie L. Campbell Visual Methods for Collecting and Analysing Data - Susan E. Bell Keyword Analysis: A New Tool for Qualitative Research - Clive Seale and Jonathan Charteris-Black PART FOUR: ISSUES IN QUALITATIVE HEALTH RESEARCH Recognizing Quality in Qualitative Research - Kath M. Melia Mixed Methods Involving Qualitative Research - Alicia O'Cathain A Practical Guide to Research Ethics - Laura Stark and Adam Hedgecoe Using Qualitative Research Methods to Inform Health Policy: The Case of Public Deliberation - Julia Abelson Cross National Qualitative Health Research - Carine Vassy and Richard Keller PART FIVE: APPLYING QUALITATIVE METHODS Researching Reproduction Qualitatively: Intersections of Personal and Political - Kereen Reiger and Pranee Liamputtong Understanding the Shaping, Incorporation and Co-Ordination of Health Technologies through Qualitative Research - Tiago Moreira and Tim Rapley Transgressive Pleasures: Undertaking Qualitative Research in the Radsex Domain - Dave Holmes, Patrick O'Byrne and Denise Gastaldo The Challenges and Opportunities of Qualitative Health Research with Children - Ilina Singh and Sinead Keenan The Dilemmas of Advocacy: The Paradox of Giving in Disability Research - Ruth Pinder Qualitative Approaches for Studying Environmental Health - Phil Brown

The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Methods in Health Research

As the Covid-19 crisis deepens, some researchers have argued for the widespread routine use of face masks in community settings, despite acknowledged gaps in the evidence base for the effectiveness of such a measure. We argue that such calls are premature, and risk neglecting important potential harms and negative consequences, known and unknown. We identify potential unintended consequences at multiple levels, from individual-behavioural to macrosocial, and suggest that it is far from clear that the benefits of widespread uptake of face masks, whether encouraged or enforced by public authorities, outweigh the downsides. Finally, we make the case for caution in communicating unequivocal messages about the scientific evidence for face mask use to policy, practitioner and public audiences, given continued scientific disagreement on the question.

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Robert Dingwall

Papers

Qualitative research methods in health technology assessment: a review of the literature.

Context and Method in Qualitative Research

The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Methods in Health Research

Face masks for the public during Covid-19: an appeal for caution in policy

Accounts, interviews and observations