This is the second of a two-part article that discusses the history of the field of instructional design and technology in the United States. The first part, which focused on the history of instructional media, appeared in the previous issue of this journal (volume 49, number 1). This part of the article focuses on the history of instructional design. Starting with a description of the efforts to develop training programs during World War II, and continuing on through the publication of some of the first instructional design models in the 1960s and 1970s, major events in the development of the instructional design process are described. Factors that have affected the field of instructional design over the last two decades, including increasing interest in cognitive psychology, microcomputers, performance technology, and constructivism, are also described.

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A History of Instructional Design and Technology: Part II: A History of Instructional Design

There is a design methodology calledrapid prototyping which has been used successfully in software engineering. Given the similarities between software design and instructional design, we argue that rapid prototyping is a viable model for instructional design, especially for computer-based instruction. Additionally, we argue that recent theories of design offer plausible explanations for the apparent success of rapid prototyping in software design. Such theories also support the notion that rapid prototyping is appropriate for instructional design. We offer guidelines for the use of rapid prototyping and list possible tradeoffs in its application.

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Rapid Prototyping: An Alternative Instructional Design Strategy

This chapter presents information about the role of models used for instructional design. While heuristics provide broad references for approaching instructional design, specific applications of procedures necessary to actually develop teaching and learning materials require more defined models. The purpose here is to promote a better understanding about the appropriate utilization of instructional design models. Instruction is posited here as including both teaching and learning, and that teaching and learning are inextricably connected with regard to the construction of knowledge and skills. Since the first appearance of instructional design models in the 1960s there has been an ever-increasing number of models published in both the instructional technology and other education literature based on the assumptions that instruction includes both teaching and learning. While there are hundreds of instructional design models, there have been only a few major distinctions among them, until recently. Still, instructional design models provide conceptual tools to visualize, direct, and manage processes for creating high-quality teaching and learning materials. The proper selection of instructional design models assists us in appropriately matching the right process with the right situation. Thus, instructional design models serve as a valuable source for matching the right creative process to the right design situation as well as an effective framework for conducting instructional design research.

Instructional Design Models

Behaviour change has become a hot topic. We describe a new approach, Behaviour Centred Design (BCD), which encompasses a theory of change, a suite of behavioural determinants and a programme design process. The theory of change is generic, assuming that successful interventions must create a cascade of effects via environments, through brains, to behaviour and hence to the desired impact, such as improved health. Changes in behaviour are viewed as the consequence of a reinforcement learning process involving the targeting of evolved motives and changes to behaviour settings, and are produced by three types of behavioural control mechanism (automatic, motivated and executive). The implications are that interventions must create surprise, revalue behaviour and disrupt performance in target behaviour settings. We then describe a sequence of five steps required to design an intervention to change specific behaviours: Assess, Build, Create, Deliver and Evaluate. The BCD approach has been shown to change hygiene, nutrition and exercise-related behaviours and has the advantages of being applicable to product, service or institutional design, as well as being able to incorporate future developments in behaviour science. We therefore argue that BCD can become the foundation for an applied science of behaviour change.

https://tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/17437199.2016.1219673

Behaviour Centred Design: towards an applied science of behaviour change.

Instructional development (ID) models are almost as numerous as the practitioners of instructional development. The role of models in instructional development is to provide conceptual and communication tools that can be used to visualize, direct, and manage processes for generating episodes of guided learning. Instructional development can be practiced in a variety of settings and various models have been created that reflect this variation. This article presents some of the early history of instructional development models, reviews some of the more influential ID models, and discusses the possible impact of selected trends on futgure models of instructional development.

https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED416837.pdf

Revisioning models of instructional development

: This Workbook has been designed for use in conjunction with the Interservice Instructional Systems Development Procedures, audio-visual materials, and a limited number of Workshop Enablers or instructors. It is designed to be primarily self-instructional with the addition of feedback at key points in the process. The report contains workbooks for 12 modules in the Interservice Procedures for Instructional Systems Development Technical Level Workshop.

http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA023892&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf

Interservice Procedures for Instructional Systems Development: Technical Level Workshop

: The report is a five volume set of procedures developed for the preparation of a curriculum when interservice training is called for. The procedures address five major phases, which are: analyze, design, develop, implement, and control. The procedures begin with methodology for conducting a job analysis for the curriculum subject area for which the instruction is to be developed and go through 18 additional steps suitable for the empirical development of interservice training. This volume contains a summary and model.

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Interservice Procedures for Instructional Systems Development. Executive Summary and Model

: The volume outlines important procedures in developing interservice training effectiveness Elements emphasized are setting guidelines for learning objectives, obtaining instructional cost effectiveness by mixing media, using existing proven materials or devising new ones, evaluating existing materials for appropriateness, developing new instruction where necessary, and validating all instructional materials

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Interservice Procedures for Instructional Systems Development. Phase 3. Develop

: The application of the state of the art techniques in Instructional Technology at TRADOC schools and training centers was examined. This assessment revealed that systems engineering regulations and guidance, personnel, facilities, and materials available at TRADOC Schools and training centers make it feasible to increase competent applications of instructional technology. The study found a distinct emphasis on training new people in applications of instructional technology with significant changes occurring. Changes in the TRADOC schools and training centers have been principally noted in those persons actually performing the technical work. An articulated training program is required which provides each individual assigned to the school or training center. This program should contain training materials designed specifically for middle and senior managers. The increasing application of Instructional Technology at TRADOC Schools and centers was apparent.

Analysis and Assessment of the State of the Art in Instructional Technology.

: The analysis phase of interservice training curriculum development includes the establishment of job performance standards, task discrimination to separate important ones from the unimportant ones, construction of tests to determine ability to perform tasks, examination of existing courses for effectiveness, and selection of an optimum instructional setting for a given task.

Robert K. Branson

Papers

Interservice Procedures for Instructional Systems Development: Technical Level Workshop

Interservice Procedures for Instructional Systems Development. Executive Summary and Model

Interservice Procedures for Instructional Systems Development. Phase 3. Develop

Analysis and Assessment of the State of the Art in Instructional Technology.

Interservice Procedures for Instructional Systems Development. Phase 1. Analyze