世界経済・社会統計 = World development indicators

Beginning with Emlen (1966) and MacArthur and Pianka (1966) and extending through the last ten years, several authors have sought to predict the foraging behavior of animals by means of mathematical models. These models are very similar,in that they all assume that the fitness of a foraging animal is a function of the efficiency of foraging measured in terms of some "currency" (Schoener, 1971) -usually energy- and that natural selection has resulted in animals that forage so as to maximize this fitness. As a result of these similarities, the models have become known as "optimal foraging models"; and the theory that embodies them, "optimal foraging theory." The situations to which optimal foraging theory has been applied, with the exception of a few recent studies, can be divided into the following four categories: (1) choice by an animal of which food types to eat (i.e., optimal diet); (2) choice of which patch type to feed in (i.e., optimal patch choice); (3) optimal allocation of time to different patches; and (4) optimal patterns and speed of movements. In this review we discuss each of these categories separately, dealing with both the theoretical developments and the data that permit tests of the predictions. The review is selective in the sense that we emphasize studies that either develop testable predictions or that attempt to test predictions in a precise quantitative manner. We also discuss what we see to be some of the future developments in the area of optimal foraging theory and how this theory can be related to other areas of biology. Our general conclusion is that the simple models so far formulated are supported are supported reasonably well by available data and that we are optimistic about the value both now and in the future of optimal foraging theory. We argue, however, that these simple models will requre much modification, espicially to deal with situations that either cannot easily be put into one or another of the above four categories or entail currencies more complicated that just energy.

Citation classic - optimal foraging - a selective review of theory and tests

Preface 1. The conceptual framework 2. The natural state 3. The natural state applied: English land law 4. Open access orders 5. Explaining the transition from limited to open access orders: the doorstep conditions 6. The transition proper 7. A new research agenda for the social sciences Afterword.

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Violence and Social Orders: A Conceptual Framework for Interpreting Recorded Human History

The evolution of prestige: freely conferred deference as a mechanism for enhancing the benefits of cultural transmission.

Human life histories as compared to those of other primates and mammals have at least four distinctive characteristics: an exceptionally long life span an extended period of juvenile dependence support of reproduction by older post-reproductive individuals and male support of reproduction through the provisioning of females and their offspring. Another distinctive feature of our species is a large brain with its associated psychological attributes: increased capacities for learning cognition and insight. In this paper the authors propose a theory that unites and organizes these observations and generates many theoretical and empirical predictions. The authors present some tests of those predictions and outline new predictions that can be tested in future research by comparative biologists archaeologists paleontologists biological anthropologists demographers geneticists and cultural anthropologists. (authors)

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A theory of human life history evolution: Diet, intelligence, and longevity

Chapter 1. Hunter-Gatherers and Anthropology Chapter 2. Environment, Evolution, and Anthropological Theory Chapter 3. Foraging and Subsistence Chapter 4. Foraging and Mobility Chapter 5. Sharing, Exchange, and Land Tenure Chapter 6. Group Size and Reproduction Chapter 7. Men, Women, and Foraging Chapter 8. Egalitarian and Nonegalitarian Hunter-Gatherers Hunter-Gatherers and Prehistory Notes References Index

The Foraging Spectrum: Diversity in Hunter-Gatherer Lifeways

The nature of hunter-gatherer mobility strategies--the way in which hunter-gatherers move about a landscape over the course of a year--is discussed, using ethnographic data. Several mobility variables that measure residential and logistical mobility are defined; several environmental variables which measure resource accessibility and resource monitoring costs are also defined. Ethnographic data are used to demonstrate patterning between the nature of mobility strategies and the resource structure of an environment. The data show that the extent to which a group of hunter-gatherers emphasizes residential or logistical mobility is closely related to the structure of resources in their environment.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/3629672.pdf

Hunter-Gatherer Mobility Strategies

Hunter-gatherer adaptations to long-term fluctuations in regional resource structure require mechanisms to cope with periodic subsistence stresses. Among documented groups, a common response to such stress is temporary movement into adjacent occupied areas-moving in with "relatives" when things go wrong. However, in the case of early (ca. 12,000-10,000 B.P.) Paleoindian groups in the Americas, the availability of neighboring groups with a detailed knowledge of local resource geography could not be relied upon. Post-Pleistocene environmental changes and the low initial population of the New World are important factors conditioning a lifeway characterized by a dependence on hunting (though not exclusively of megafauna), and by high residential, logistical, and range (territorial) mobility. Early Paleoindian groups had to adopt a subsistence technology that could be employed regardless of the specific resource microstructure. In some regards, Paleoindians seem to have behaved like tropical foragers while in others like arctic collectors. Use of high quality lithic raw materials from large quarry sources, reliance on a bifacial technology, limited use of caves and rockshelters, and a low level of processing of food products for storage all may be indicative of such a subsistence technology, which would have been unlike that of any modern hunter-gatherers.

Coming into the Country: Early Paleoindian Hunting and Mobility

There is hardly a more romantic image in anthropology than that of a small band of hunter-gatherers setting off into the bush, their few belongings on their backs. Mobility, in fact, has long been considered a defining characteristic of hunter-gatherers. At the Man the Hunter conference, for example, Lee & DeVore (101:1 1) assumed that all hunter-gatherers "move around a lot." This is not entirely accurate, for many hunter-gatherers move infrequently-some less than many "sedentary" horticultural societies. Early concepts of mobility blinded us to the fact that mobility is universal, variable, and multi-dimensional. Partly because of these concepts, and partly because we do not understand the relationships between movement and material culture, archaeologists have had difficulty identifying different forms and levels of mobility. This is especially true in defining and then detecting sedentism. It is important that we learn to recognize the various forms of mobility archaeologically, because the ways people move exert strong influences on their culture and society. In his classic study, Mauss (105), for example, related the Inuit's seasonal mobility to their moral and religious life. Sahlins (136) saw mobility as conditioning cultural attitudes towards material goods. Currently, archaeologists focus attention on the sedentarization process because reduced mobility precipitates dramatic changes in food storage, trade, territoriality, social and gender inequality, male/female work patterns, subsis-

https://www.jstor.org/stable/info/2155980

Mobility/Sedentism: Concepts, Archaeological Measures, and Effects

Three different sorts of bifacial tools-by-products of the shaping process, cores, and long use-life tools-are used to consider the role mobility plays in producing variability in hunter-gatherer lithic technologies. The relations among tool roles, raw-material distribution, and mobility as well as the archaeological consequences of the different roles are key factors. An examination of temporal trends in the use of bifacial implements in the Carson Sink of western Nevada shows how the proposed perspective on lithic technology can help to elucidate change in mobility strategies. A shift from the use of bifaces as cores to an infrequent use of bifaces as tools suggests a shift from logistical to short-term residential use of the raw-material-poor Carson Sink; a later shift to the use of small, frequently unifacial, nonresharpenable points may indicate a shift to target-specific hunting strategies.

Robert L. Kelly

Papers

The Foraging Spectrum: Diversity in Hunter-Gatherer Lifeways

Hunter-Gatherer Mobility Strategies

Coming into the Country: Early Paleoindian Hunting and Mobility

Mobility/Sedentism: Concepts, Archaeological Measures, and Effects

The Three Sides of a Biface