The Theory and Practice of Group Psychotherapy

A meta-analysis was conducted on the accuracy of predictions of various objective outcomes in the areas of social and clinical psychology from short observations of expressive behavior (under 5 min) The overall effect size (/) for the accuracy of predictions for 38 different results was 39 Studies using longer periods of behavioral observation did not yield greater predictive accuracy; predictions based on observations under Vi min in length did not differ significantly from predictions based on 4- and 5-min observations The type of behavioral channel (such as the face, speech, the body, tone of voice) on which the ratings were based was not related to the accuracy of predictions Accuracy did not vary significantly between behaviors manipulated in a laboratory and more naturally occurring behavior Last, effect sizes did not differ significantly for predictions in the areas of clinical psychology, social psychology, and the accuracy of detecting deception The way in which people move, talk, and gesture—their facial expressions, posture, and speech—all contribute to the formation of impressions about them Many of the judgments we make about others in our everyday lives are based on cues from these expressive behaviors Gordon Allport (1937) believed that expressive behaviors were important indicators of personality and that impressions from brief interactions were often verified upon further acquaintance Allport and Vernon (1933) demonstrated that people's expressive styles were quite consistent across a variety of situations They then began to investigate the accuracy of perceivers' impressions that were based on observations of these expressive styles For reasons that have been discussed elsewhere, this issue—like other issues concerning the accuracy of interpersonal and social perception— was neglected for a long time (Funder, 1987; Kenny & Albright, 1987) Recently, however, there has been a resurgence of interest in the accuracy of social and interpersonal perception and judgment (Funder, 1987; Kenny & Albright, 1987; Kruglanski, 1989; Swann, 1984) and in the study of expressive behavior (Lippa, 1983; Riggio & Friedman, 1986) Recent work confirms earlier findings (Passini & Norman, 1966) that the ratings of strangers converge surprisingly well with self-ratings of personality by targets (Albright, Kenny, & Malloy, 1988; Funder & Cohan, 1988; Watson, 1989) This correspondence seems to confirm Gordon Allport's observation that there is something in the nature of individuals that

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Thin slices of expressive behavior as predictors of interpersonal consequences: A meta-analysis.

Self-disclosure: a literature review.

It is my thesis in this paper that we should re-examine and re-evaluate that very special way of being with another person which has been called empathic. I believe we tend to give too little consideration to an element which is extremely important both for the understanding of personality dynamics and for effecting changes in personality and behavior. It is one of the most delicate and powerful ways we have of using ourselves. In spite of all that has been said and written on this topic, it is a way of being which is rarely seen in full bloom in a relationship. I will start with my own somewhat faltering history in relation to this topic. Personal Vacillations Very early in my work as a therapist I discovered that simply listening to my client, very attentively, was an important way of being helpful. So when I was in doubt as to what I should do, in some active way, I listened. It seemed surprising to me that such a passive kind of interaction could be so useful. A little later a social worker, who had a background of Rankian training, helped me to learn that the most effective approach was to listen for the feelings, the emotions whose patterns could be discerned through the client's words. I believe she was the one who suggested that the best response was to "reflect" these feelings back to the client-- "reflect" becoming in time a word which made me cringe. But at that time it improved my work as therapist, and I was grateful. Then came my transition to a full-time university position where, with the help of students, I was at last able to scrounge equipment for recording our interviews. I cannot exaggerate the excitement of our learnings as we clustered about the machine which enabled us to listen to ourselves, playing over and over some puzzling point at which the interview clearly went wrong, or those moments in which the client moved significantly forward. (I still regard this as the one best way of learning to improve oneself as a therapist.) Among many lessons from these recordings, we came to realize that listening to feelings and "reflecting" them was a vastly complex process. We discovered that we could pinpoint the therapist response which caused a fruitful flow of significant expression to become superficial and unprofitable. Likewise we were able to spot the remark which turned a client's dull and desultory talk into a focused selfexploration. In such a context of learning it became quite natural to lay more stress upon the content of the therapist response than upon the empathic quality of the listening. To this extent we became heavily conscious of the techniques which the counselor or therapist was using. We became expert in analyzing, in very minute detail, the ebb and flow of the process in each interview, and

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Robert R. Carkhuff

Papers

Toward Effective Counseling and Psychotherapy: Training and Practice

Beyond counseling and therapy

Training in counseling and psychotherapy: An evaluation of an integrated didactic and experiential approach.

Differential effects of therapist race and social class upon patient depth of self-exploration in the initial clinical interview.

Lay mental health counseling. The effects of lay group counseling.