Attachment theory is extended to pertain to developmental changes in the nature of children's attachments to parents and surrogate figures during the years beyond infancy, and to the nature of other affectional bonds throughout the life cycle. Various types of affectional bonds are examined in terms of the behavioral systems characteristic of each and the ways in which these systems interact. Specifically, the following are discussed: (a) the caregiving system that underlies parents' bonds to their children, and a comparison of these bonds with children's attachments to their parents; (b) sexual pair-bonds and their basic components entailing the reproductive, attachment, and caregiving systems; (c) friendships both in childhood and adulthood, the behavioral systems underlying them, and under what circumstances they may become enduring bonds; and (d) kinship bonds (other than those linking parents and their children) and why they may be especially enduring.

https://psycnet.apa.org/journals/amp/44/4/709.pdf

Attachments beyond infancy.

Once viewed as "less developed countries," emerging markets (EMs) now offer a significant growth opportunity for multinational corporations (MNCs). Because they differ dramatically from mature markets, however, they raise new strategic questions that traditional marketing frameworks do not resolve. 

While traditional models argue against first-mover advantages in EMs, additional sources of advantage ? favorable government relations, pent-up demand, marketing productivity, marketing resources, and consequent learning ? can make early market entry a desirable option. The authors provide a framework, oriented toward demand rather than risk, that enables companies to assess long-term market potential, identify business prospects, and predict potential benefits. Using the framework, companies can categorize EMs on the basis of short- and long-term potential.

Once an MNC decides to enter a market, it needs new frameworks to guide product and partner policy decisions. The different patterns of market development in EMs imply that, contrary to conventional models, companies can expand the market rapidly, should offer a combination of global imported brands and locally made joint venture brands, and use EMs to test product innovations. The design and management of relationships with local distributor partners is the most critical challenge for executives. In the areas of industry experience, direct selling, local autonomy, and exclusivity, experienced MNCs are adapting the approaches employed in developed markets in ways that are appropriate for emerging markets.

As MNCs continue to gain experience in EMs, marketing models will have to change to incorporate the new practices and new learning that are coming from markets.

New Strategies in Emerging Markets

Researchers find that most children from divorced families function normally, but some clinicians assert that young people are disturbed even many years after a divorce. These accounts may be less discrepant than they appear, because research typically focuses on notably problematic behavior (disorder), whereas case studies emphasize more subtle inner turmoil (distress). In Study 1 college students reported painful feelings, beliefs, and memories about their parents divorce on a reliable new measure, but they also reported accepting the divorce and having few psychological symptoms. Distress about family life was greater among students from divorced than from married families. Study 2 replicated these findings in a community sample of young people from low-income divorced families. In both studies, greater distress was associated with children's residence, frequency of contact with fathers, interparental conflict, and psychological symptoms.

Distress among young adults from divorced families.

Divorce represents a special kind of stressful experience for the child who has been reared within a two-parent family. The child’s experience in divorce is comparable in several ways to the experience of the child who loses a parent through death or to the child who loses his or her community following a natural disaster. Each of these experiences strikes at and disrupts close family relationships. Each weakens the protection that the nuclear family provides, leaving in its wake a diminished, more vulnerable family structure. Each traces a pattern of time that begins with an acute, time-limited crisis, and is followed by an extended period of disequilibrium which may last several years—or even longer—past the central event. And each introduces a chain of long-lasting changes that are not predictable at the outset and that reach into multiple domains of family life.

Children of divorce

Past research consistently finds that marital dissolution is associated with psychological distress. In this paper, we propose that the explanation for this association varies by gender. Specifically, we hypothesize that it is material conditions (income and parental obligations) that are most important in accounting for the greater symptomatology of separated and divorced women while it is dimensions of social networks (both structural and experiential) that are more important in accounting for the symptomatology of separated and divorced men. Our analyses largely support the hypotheses. Our findings suggest that marriage protects men and zwmen in very different ways. Researchers consistently find that marital dissolution is associated with psychological distress (Bachrach; Bloom et al.; Riessman and Gerstel). Compared with the married, the separated and divorced-both male and female-have higher rates of mental health symptoms as well as admission to psychiatric hospitals and outpatient clinics (Briscoe et al.; Radloff; Redick and Johnson; Somers; Warheit et al.). In this sense, marriage is protective of mental health. Various explanations have been offered for the relationship between separation and divorce and psychiatric symptoms. In general, two

Robert S. Weiss

Papers

Going It Alone