We investigate whether income inequality affects subsequent growth in a cross-country sample for 1965-90, using the models of Barro (1997), Bleaney and Nishiyama (2002) and Sachs and Warner (1997), with negative results. We then investigate the evolution of income inequality over the same period and its correlation with growth. The dominating feature is inequality convergence across countries. This convergence has been significantly faster amongst developed countries. Growth does not appear to influence the evolution of inequality over time. Outline

https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/81822/1/02-28.pdf

Economic growth and income inequality

With digital equipment becoming increasingly networked, either on wired or wireless networks, for personal and professional use alike, distributed software systems have become a crucial element in information and communications technologies. The study of these systems forms the core of the ARLES' work, which is specifically concerned with defining new system software architectures, based on the use of emerging networking technologies. In this context, we concentrate on the study of distributed systems which bring to life the vision of ubiquitous computing systems, also known as ambient intelligence.

반도체 공정 overview

The State of Food and Agriculture

Dynamic interactions between and within the biogeophysical and human environments lead to the production, processing, distribution, preparation and consumption of food, resulting in food systems that underpin food security. Food systems encompass food availability (production, distribution and exchange), food access (affordability, allocation and preference) and food utilization (nutritional and societal values and safety), so that food security is, therefore, diminished when food systems are stressed. Such stresses may be induced by a range of factors in addition to climate change and/or other agents of environmental change (e.g. conflict, HIV/AIDS) and may be particularly severe when these factors act in combination. Urbanization and globalization are causing rapid changes to food systems.

Climate change may affect food systems in several ways ranging from direct effects on crop production (e.g. changes in rainfall leading to drought or flooding, or warmer or cooler temperatures leading to changes in the length of growing season), to changes in markets, food prices and supply chain infrastructure. The relative importance of climate change for food security differs between regions. For example, in southern Africa, climate is among the most frequently cited drivers of food insecurity because it acts both as an underlying, ongoing issue and as a short-lived shock. The low ability to cope with shocks and to mitigate long-term stresses means that coping strategies that might be available in other regions are unavailable or inappropriate. In other regions, though, such as parts of the Indo-Gangetic Plain of India, other drivers, such as labour issues and the availability and quality of ground water for irrigation, rank higher than the direct effects of climate change as factors influencing food security.

Because of the multiple socio-economic and bio-physical factors affecting food systems and hence food security, the capacity to adapt food systems to reduce their vulnerability to climate change is not uniform. Improved systems of food production, food distribution and economic access may all contribute to food systems adapted to cope with climate change, but in adopting such changes it will be important to ensure that they contribute to sustainability. Agriculture is a major contributor of the greenhouse gases methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), so that regionally derived policies promoting adapted food systems need to mitigate further climate change.

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Climate change and food security

In this analysis of public policy to reduce poverty, the authors point out, among other things, that typically the highest incidence and severity of poverty are still found in rural areas, especially if ill-watered. For many of the rural poor, the only immediate route out of poverty is by migration to towns, to face a higher expected income, although often a more uncertain one. This may or may not reduce aggregate poverty. We can be more confident that growth in agricultural output -- fueled by investment in human and physical infrastructure -- is pro-poor, though not because the poor own much land. The policies pursued by most developing countries up to the mid-1980s -- and by many still -- have been biased against the rural sector in various ways. The same is true -- although different policies are involved -- of the other major sectoral concentration of poor, namely, the urban informal sector. There are clear prospects for reducing poverty by removing these biases. Looking ahead (far ahead, in some cases), it is less clear how much further gain to the poor can be expected from introducing a bias in the opposite direction. Neutrality should be the aim. We need good data and measurement to identify which public actions are effective in fighting poverty. There have been a number of advances in household data and analytic capabilities for poverty analysis over the last ten years. We are in a better position than ever to devise well-informed policies. The authors identify two important roles for public action. One is to foster the conditions for pro-poor growth, particularly by providing wide access to the necessary physical and human assets, including public infrastructure. The other is to help those who cannot participate fully in the benefits of such growth, or who do so with continued exposure to unacceptable risks. Here there is an important role for aiming interventions by various means to improve the distribution of the benefits of public spending on social ser(This abstract was borrowed from another version of this item.)

Poverty and policy

PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1. Introduction PART I: AGRICULTURAL PERFORMANCE AND POLICIES 2. Performance of Agriculture in the Post-Reform Period and Status of Farm Household 3. Emerging Policy Issues and Needed Reforms in Agriculture PART II: POVERTY AND RIGHT TO FOOD 4. Dimensions and Determinants of Income Poverty and Inequality 5. Right to Food 6. Social Safety Nets for the Poor PART III: EMPLOYMENT AND SOCIAL SECURITY 7. Employment: Trends, Issues, and Policies 8. Social Security for the Unorganised Workers: Growth Mediated and Support Led Approaches Part IV: Human Development and Regional Disparities 9. Human Development and Millenium Development Goals 10. Regional Disparities in Economic and Social Development 11. Conclusions and Policy Suggestions for Inclusive Growth Index

Inclusive Growth in India: Agriculture, poverty and human development

Inclusive growth in India

The twenty-two articles in the volume covering a range of issues and experiences relating to the social and economic security system aim to invoke a renewed interest among researches and policy makers as well as social activists and voluntary workers in reviewing the existing system with a view to develop an alternative framework.

Social and economic security in India

Rural poverty in India : incidence, issues, and policies

In India, economic growth has improved significantly during the past two and a half decades, particularly in the post-reform period. India is considered as one of the fastest growing economies in the world. However, the exclusion problems have not been addressed seriously by the government programmes and strategies. The experience of the economic reforms during the past 15 years indicates that while there have been improvements in the economic growth, foreign exchange, IT revolution, export growth, etc., the income distribution has been unequal and only some sections of the population have been benefited more from this higher growth and prosperity. In other words, real development in terms of growth shared by all sections of the population has not taken place. We have problems of poverty, unemployment, inequalities in access to credit, health care and education and poor performance of the agriculture sector. One of the excluded sectors during the reform period was agriculture which showed low growth and experienced more farmers’ suicides. There are serious concerns about the performance of agriculture sector in the country. The post-reform period growth has been led by the services. The commodity sector growth (agriculture + industry) has not been higher in the post-reform period as compared to that during the 1980s. The particular worry is the agriculture sector which has shown less than 2 per cent per annum growth during the past decade. Also, there is a disconnect between employment growth and GDP growth. In other words, employment is not being generated in the industry and services sector, where growth is high. On the other hand, GDP growth is low in the agriculture wherein a majority of people are employed. Thus, there has been a lop-sided approach to agricultural development in India during the past few decades. Growth may be higher during the past two decades, but the inclusive growth in terms of focus on agriculture has been missing1. It is like running a train with engine only without connecting a majority of the bogies and people to the engine. The role of agriculture in economic development is well known. Agriculture not only contributes to overall growth of the economy but also provides employment and food security to the majority population, which in turn reduces poverty in a developing country. Thus, if we want pro-poor growth and real development, high agricultural growth and rising incomes for farmers are essential. In recent decades, the context within which agriculture policy has to be developed and implemented, has undergone fundamental changes. The relationships operated for much of the 1960s and 1970s have changed. Globalization policies during the 1980s and particularly during 1990s and beyond have created many challenges for agriculture in developing countries. Some of the consequences and impacts of globalization in developing countries are: exposure of domestic agriculture to international competition, growth of non-agricultural sector and its impact on demand for agricultural products, urban middle class life-style changes, including diets, rising food imports, competitiveness and diversification of domestic production systems, vertical integration of the food supply chain, etc. (Prabhu, 2006). Because of demographic pressures, there has been a significant increase in small and marginal farm holdings. These farmers have to face the challenges of globalization. Risk and uncertainty have also increased as cultivation has spread to marginal lands. The diversification of agriculture has also raised concerns on food security. In recent years, there has been a concern regarding increase in the global food prices. Rise in crude oil prices has increased agricultural costs also. Increased use of food crops for biofuels has also pushed up their demand. The USA uses 20 per cent of its maize production for biofuels; Brazil uses 50 per cent of sugarcane for biofuels; and the European Union uses 68 per cent of its vegetable oil production for biofuels. Such large usages, by reducing the availability of these products for food and feed, have exerted pressure on their prices. Food prices have also increased due to low output stocks. International prices of wheat, rice and maize have increased significantly in the past two years. This is another challenge for India in maintaining its food security. This lecture is divided into three sections. Section 1 deals with the performance and problems of agriculture, while Section 2 discusses policy challenges for the revival of Indian agriculture. The last Section provides concluding observations.

S. Mahendra Dev

Papers

Inclusive Growth in India: Agriculture, poverty and human development

Inclusive growth in India

Social and economic security in India

Rural poverty in India : incidence, issues, and policies

Challenges for Revival of Indian Agriculture