An Atlas of Past and Present Pollen Maps for Europe: 0-13000 Years Ago, and The Overlay Maps.

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Genetics of the Evolutionary Process

Hydrochory, or the passive dispersal of organisms by water, is an important means of propagule transport, especially for plants. During recent years, knowledge about hydrochory and its ecological consequences has increased considerably and a substantial body of literature has been produced. Here, we review this literature and define the state of the art of the discipline. A substantial proportion of species growing in or near water have propagules (fruits, seeds or vegetative units) able to disperse by water, either floating, submerged in flowing water, or with the help of floating vessels. Hydrochory can enable plants to colonize sites out of reach with other dispersal vectors, but the timing of dispersal and mechanisms of establishment are important for successful establishment. At the population level, hydrochory may increase the effective size and longevity of populations, and control their spatial configuration. Hydrochory is also an important source of species colonizing recruitment-limited riparian and wetland communities, contributing to maintenance of community species richness. Dispersal by water may even influence community composition in different landscape elements, resulting in landscape-level patterns. Genetically, hydrochory may reduce spatial aggregation of genetically related individuals, lead to high gene flow among populations, and increase genetic diversity in populations receiving many propagules. Humans have impacted hydrochory in many ways. For example, dams affect hydrochory by reducing peak flows and hence dispersal capacity, altering the timing of dispersal, and by presenting physical barriers to dispersal, with consequences for riverine plant communities. Hydrochory has been inferred to be an important vector for the spread of many invasive species, but there is also the potential for enhancing ecosystem restoration by improving or restoring water dispersal pathways. Climate change may alter the role of hydrochory by modifying the hydrology of water-bodies as well as conditions for propagule release and plant colonization.

The role of hydrochory in structuring riparian and wetland vegetation

Hulten's Amphi-Atlantic Plants Reprinted@@@The Amphi-Atlantic Plants and Their Phytogeographical Connections

1 Hesse't Problem: a Seeming Paradox of Transitivity. 2 Hesse's Solution: Argument by Analogy and Clustering Postulates. 3 Apparent Counterexamples to Hesse's Solution. 4 A Theorem in Probabilistic Confirmation Theory which Seems to Dissolve Hesse's Problem and Hesse's Solution. 5 Hesse's Argument for the Irrelevance of Theories. 6 Objections, Logical and Psychological, to Hesse's Argument for the Irrelevance of Theories. 7 Hesse's Unwillingness to Assign Finite Probabilities to Universal Generalisations. 8 Good Reasons for Assigning Finite Probabilities to some Universal Generalisations. 9 The Propriety of Assigning Finite Probabilities to each of an Open-Ended Infinity of Universal Generalisations over Infinite Domains. 10 Need we Adopt the Bayesian Prescription for Changing our Beliefs? 11 The Applicability of Convergence-to-Opinion Theorems to the Case of Actual Scientific Inference. 12 Hesse's Claim to be a Bayesian Personalist.

The structure of scientific inference

The phylogenogeographic structure, polymorphism, and differentiation of Pinus sylvestris L. have been studied for the first time by means of allozyme analysis of 143 populations along a network of transects covering the entire species range. The results show that the species in general is characterized by a significant level of differentiation, regardless of its relative uniformity in northern and central parts of the range. Nei’s genetic distances between populations and their gradients in the extreme southern parts of the range, where it has an insular pattern, are seven to eight times greater than in the northern, “glacial” zone. Three Pleistocene refugia for the species have been revealed in the Balkans, Southern Urals, and Northern Mongolia. Using analysis of genetic distances between 18 phylogeographic regions and an original genosystematic scale, one subspecies, five geographic races and nine geographic population groups have been distinguished in the P. sylvestris L. species structure.

Phylogenogeography and genotaxonomy of Pinus sylvestris L. populations

The allozyme analysis of six local populations of Pinus mugo Turra and six populations of P. sylvestris L. in the Ukrainian Carpathians, Swiss Alps, and Schwarzwald has shown a higher polymorphism and greater interpopulation differentiation of the Carpathian group of P. mugo populations compared to the Alpine group (Nei’s genetic distance DN78 at the level of geographic population group is −0.023). A genetic differentiation of DN78 = 0.049 between these populations, which are isolated by a distance of more than 1000 km, has been found. This confirms the existence of the subspecies P. mugo ssp. mugo and P. mugo ssp. uncinata in the Carpathians and Alps, respectively. The hypothesis is put forward that the former subspecies has been formed in the Balkans and the latter, in the Pyreneans. It has been demonstrated that regional populations and geographic groups of P. sylvestris are less differentiated than those of P. mugo.

Genetic differentiation of Pinus mugo Turra and P. sylvestris L. populations in the Ukrainian Carpathians and the Swiss Alps

An allozyme analysis of 67 Pinus sylvestris L. populations distributed over the entire species range has provided a basis for determining locations of 12 hypothetical Pleistocene refugia (HPRs) in its southern marginal part and estimating their relative contributions to the gene pools of seven phylogeographic population groups (PPGs) in the glaciated zone of the range. Using Nei’s (1978) minimum genetic distances (DN78 < 0.015) reflecting similarities and differences in allele frequencies between PPGs and the refugia, it has been shown that the main contributions to the P. sylvestris gene pool in Central Europe, Scandinavia, and the Russian Plain were probably made by the Balkan and Southern Ural refugia, and in Western and Central Siberia, by the Southern Ural, Turgai, and Southern Siberian mountain refugia.

A system of Pleistocene refugia for Pinus sylvestris L. in the southern marginal part of the species range

A comparative analysis of field observations and experiments on the distance and rate of dispersal of self-sown Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) progeny has shown that the rate of their hydrochorous dissemination downstream is an order of magnitude higher than the rate of dispersal in upland areas. A hypothesis assigning priority to the role of hydrochory in the expansion of conifer populations to the tundra (periglacial) zone along with climate warming has been formulated and substantiated by comparative isozyme analysis of populations in transects lying along and across rivers.

The hypothesis of hydrochorous dissemination of populations of conifers

The paper is devoted to the analysis and generalization of the results of stationary studies on differentiation of factors of the epi-soil environment, natural forest regeneration, and formation of secondary dendrocenoses on burns and clean cuts in two pine forest types most prevalent in the pre-forest–steppe subzone of Western Siberia (Pripyshmiskian pine forests). It is shown that the same primary forest type (or even biogeocenosis) in burns, on the one hand, and in clean cuts, on the other hand, is replaced by two types of biogeocenoses that are alternative to each other in terms of structure and functions and represent qualitatively different, diverging ecodynamic series of natural regeneration and development of the primary, autochthonous forest type.

S. N. Sannikov

Papers

Phylogenogeography and genotaxonomy of Pinus sylvestris L. populations

Genetic differentiation of Pinus mugo Turra and P. sylvestris L. populations in the Ukrainian Carpathians and the Swiss Alps

A system of Pleistocene refugia for Pinus sylvestris L. in the southern marginal part of the species range

The hypothesis of hydrochorous dissemination of populations of conifers

Divergence of biogeocenoses within pine forest types