Theory of Raman scattering evolution and revolution of Raman instrumentation - application of available technologies to spectroscopy and microscopy Raman spectroscopy and its adaptation to the industrial environment Raman microscopy - confocal and scanning near-field Raman imaging the quest for accuracy in Raman spectra chemometrics for Raman spectroscopy Raman spectra of gases Raman spectroscopy applied to crystals - phenomena and principles, concepts and conventions Raman scattering of glass Raman spectroscopic applications to gemmology Raman spectroscopy on II-IV-semiconductor nanostructures medical applications of Raman spectroscopy - in vivo Raman spectroscopy some pharmaceutical applications of Raman spectroscopy low-frequency Raman spectroscopy and biomolecular dynamics - a comparison between different low-frequency experimental techniques collectivity of vibrational modes Raman spectroscopic studies of ion-ion interactions in aqueous and non-aqueous electrolyte solutions environmental applications of Raman spectroscopy to aqueous solutions Raman and surface enhanced resonance Raman scattering - applications in forensic science application of Raman spectroscopy to organic fibres and films applications of IR and Raman spectra of quasi-elemental carbon process Raman spectroscopy the use of Raman spectroscopy to monitor the quality of carbon overcoats in the disk drive industry Raman spectroscopy in the undergraduate teaching laboratory Raman spectroscopy in the characterization of archaeological materials.

Handbook of Raman Spectroscopy: From the Research Laboratory to the Process Line

Applications of planar integrated optical waveguide (IOW) technology to problems in surface spectroscopy and optical chemical sensing have been partly limited by the difficulty of producing high-quality glass IOWs. The fabrication of IOWs by the sol-gel method from methyltriethoxysilane and titanium tetrabutoxide precursors is described here. The physical, chemical, and optical properties of the films during and after high-temperature annealing were studied using a variety of analytical techniques. The results show that the catalyst used to accelerate the sol-gel reaction strongly influenced the optical quality of the IOW. HCl catalysis produced waveguides with propagation losses of approximately 1 dB/cm, whereas in the case of SiCl4 catalysis, propagation losses were < 0.2 dB/cm, a value significantly less than any previously reported for sol-gel-derived IOWs. An examination of film surface structure and morphology by scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy showed that the SiCl4-catalyzed IOWs were significantly smoother and more homogeneous on a submicrometer scale than the HCl-catalyzed IOWs. The use of SiCl4 is thought to retard formation of a microheterogeneous network containing Si-rich and Ti-rich domains, which is favored with HCl catalysis and contributes to the higher observed losses.

Fabrication and characterization of low-loss, sol-gel planar waveguides.

Raman spectrometry has historically been limited to the study of pure, nonfluorescent samples. During the period 1966-1986, several workers demonstrated that the use of deep-red or near-infrared (NIR) lasers would allow the observation of Raman spectra without exciting fluorescence. The ability to obtain Raman spectra in the deep red or NIR could not be generally realized in reasonable measurement times, primarily because of the insensitivity of the available detectors (photomultiplier tubes or diode arrays). In addition, the krypton or solid-state ion-pumped lasers required for these measurements were very expensive.

Raman Spectrometry with Fiber-Optic Sampling

Vibrational spectroscopy of biophysical monolayers. Applications of IR and Raman spectroscopy to biomembrane model systems at interfaces

We have fabricated miniature planar IR waveguides of thickness 30-50 μm, consisting of 12-mm long, 2-mm wide strips of Ge supported on ZnS substrates. Evidence for efficient propagation of broadband IR light through these waveguides is provided by the presence of characteristic high and low frequency optical cut-offs of Ge; by the observation of an oscillatory interference pattern in the transmittance spectrum, which exhibits a dependence on waveguide thickness and propagation angle closely matching waveguide theory; and by the detection of strong evanescent-wave absorption from small (2 mm 2 ) droplets of liquid, e.g. water, on the waveguide surface. As also predicted by theory, the surface sensitivity (detected light absorbance per unit area of sample-waveguide contact) was shown to increase as a function of incidence or bevel angle.

Support planar germanium waveguides for infrared evanescent-wave sensing

Raman spectroscopic studies of submicron-thick films have been accomplished through the use of integrated optical techniques. By using the film as an asymmetric slab waveguide for the laser excitation, and collecting the scattering emanating from the guided streak, the authors have obtained Raman spectra of organic films, polymer laminates, and molecular composites. The utility of the waveguide Raman spectroscopy technique has been limited by high levels of fluorescence when visible wavelength excitation is used. With the advent of FT-Raman spectroscopy, in which a near-infrared laser is used, Raman spectra of highly fluorescent and intensely colored materials could be easily obtained. In this study, waveguide Raman spectroscopic measurements using near-infrared excitation and a Michelson interferometer have been demonstrated. The use of a fiber optic bundle to collect the scattering and convert the image from a line to a circle has resulted in a 15-fold improvement over conventional lens collection. With the improved sensitivity, FT-Raman spectra of films containing small molecule chromophores imbedded in a polymer matrix have been obtained. In addition, extension of this method to polymers of low refractive index, by using a sublayer of very low refractive index material, such as MgF{sub 2}, has been outlined.

S. Turrell

Papers

Applications of Fourier Transform Raman spectroscopy to studies of thin polymer films