This article reviews the progress made over the last 20 years in the development and applications of liquid xenon detectors in particle physics, astrophysics, and medical imaging experiments. A summary of the fundamental properties of liquid xenon as radiation detection medium, in light of the most current theoretical and experimental information is first provided. After an introduction of the different type of liquid xenon detectors, a review of past, current, and future experiments using liquid xenon to search for rare processes and to image radiation in space and in medicine is given. Each application is introduced with a survey of the underlying scientific motivation and experimental requirements before reviewing the basic characteristics and expected performance of each experiment. Within this decade it appears likely that large volume liquid xenon detectors operated in different modes will contribute to answering some of the most fundamental questions in particle physics, astrophysics, and cosmology, fulfilling the most demanding detection challenges. From detectors based solely on liquid xenon (LXe) scintillation, such as in the MEG experiment for the search of the rare ''{mu}{yields}e{gamma}'' decay, currently the largest liquid xenon detector in operation, and in the XMASS experiment for dark matter detection, to the class ofmore » time projection chambers which exploit both scintillation and ionization of LXe, such as in the XENON dark matter search experiment and in the Enriched Xenon Observatory for neutrinoless double beta decay, unrivaled performance and important contributions to physics in the next few years are anticipated.« less

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Liquid Xenon Detectors for Particle Physics and Astrophysics

The ionization yield of 241 Am 5.49 MeV and 210 Po 5.31 MeV alpha particles in liquid xenon has been measured as a function of electric field strength in the range 0.05 kV/cm to 20 kV/cm. Consistent results are obtained with the two sources. The maximum charge collected at 10 kV/cm is less than 10% of the total and the noise subtracted energy resolution is 2.5% FWHM at 5.49 MeV, dominated by statistical fluctuations in the number of electron—ion pairs escaping recombination. A comparison with our alpha particle data in liquid argon shows a much worse energy resolution and a different slope of the ionization curve at a given field. The different response of the two liquids is explained in terms of track ionization density and recombination dependence on track emission angle.

Ionization of liquid xenon by 241Am and 210Po alpha particles

A historical view on the R&D for liquid rare gas detectors starting from 1948 up to now is presented with some comments on their applications to future experiments.

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A historical view on the R&D for liquid rare gas detectors

Electron drift velocities have been measured in liquid krypton, pure and mixed with methane at different concentrations (1–10% in volume) versus electric field strength, and a possible effect of methane on electron lifetime has been investigated. While no effect on lifetime could be detected, since lifetimes were in all cases longer than what measurable, a very large increase in drift velocity (up to a factor 6) has been measured.

Electron drift velocity measurements in liquid krypton–methane mixtures

We examine the sensitivity of an unenriched 200 liter liquid xenon detector to the double beta decay of 106 Xe. Considerations of the backgrounds arising from the detector construction materials and subterranean operation suggest a sensitivity of order 10 25 √ t yr for the neutrinoless process, comparable with currently projected sensitivities of two enriched-germanium experiments now in progress. For the two-neutrino process, the background is however too severe to reach a similar limit without significant isotopic enrichment. In either case, the need for a track imaging detector with good spatial resolutions in addition to good energy resolution, is clearly evident.

Sensitivity of a large volume LXe TPC to neutrinoless double beta decay

The energy and spatial resolution of a 40 l liquid-xenon calorimeter was measured. For electrons in the energy region 1–6 GeV the resolutions are σE/E = 3.4/√E (%), σx = 4.6/√E (mm). The details of construction and running of such a device are discussed.

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A liquid-xenon calorimeter for the detection of electromagnetic showers

The noble liquid calorimeters of particle detectors are generally regarded to be “slow” devices and have practically not been used in time measurements. But in principle they can have a resolution at the level of ns due to their stability. This paper presents results of measurements of time resolution for a test ionization chamber filled with liquid krypton and xenon and irradiated by cosmic rays. A time resolution of the order of 10 ns is obtained.

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S.V. Muraviev

Papers

A liquid-xenon calorimeter for the detection of electromagnetic showers

Time resolution of ionization chamber filled with liquid krypton and xenon