We present a general framework for characterizing the ecological and societal consequences of biodiversity loss and applying it to the global avifauna. To investigate the potential ecological consequences of avian declines, we developed comprehensive databases of the status and functional roles of birds and a stochastic model for forecasting change. Overall, 21% of bird species are currently extinction-prone and 6.5% are functionally extinct, contributing negligibly to ecosystem processes. We show that a quarter or more of frugivorous and omnivorous species and one-third or more of herbivorous, piscivorous, and scavenger species are extinction-prone. Furthermore, our projections indicate that by 2100, 6–14% of all bird species will be extinct, and 7–25% (28–56% on oceanic islands) will be functionally extinct. Important ecosystem processes, particularly decomposition, pollination, and seed dispersal, will likely decline as a result.

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Ecosystem consequences of bird declines

The consumption of figs (the fruit of Ficus spp.; Moraceae) by vertebrates is reviewed using data from the literature, unpublished accounts and new field data from Borneo and Hong Kong. Records of frugivory from over 75 countries are presented for 260 Ficus species (approximately 30% of described species). Explanations are presented for geographical and taxonomic gaps in the otherwise extensive literature. In addition to a small number of reptiles and fishes, 1274 bird and mammal species in 523 genera and 92 families are known to eat figs. In terms of the number of species and genera of fig-eaters and the number of fig species eaten we identify the avian families interacting most with Ficus to be Columbidae, Psittacidae, Pycnonotidae, Bucerotidae, Sturnidae and Lybiidae. Among mammals, the major fig-eating families are Pteropodidae, Cercopithecidae, Sciuridae, Phyllostomidae and Cebidae. We assess the role these and other frugivores play in Ficus seed dispersal and identify fig-specialists. In most, but not all, cases fig specialists provide effective seed dispersal services to the Ficus species on which they feed. The diversity of fig-eaters is explained with respect to fig design and nutrient content, phenology of fig ripening and the diversity of fig presentation. Whilst at a gross level there exists considerable overlap between birds, arboreal mammals and fruit bats with regard to the fig species they consume, closer analysis, based on evidence from across the tropics, suggests that discrete guilds of Ficus species differentially attract subsets of sympatric frugivore communities. This dispersal guild structure is determined by interspecific differences in fig design and presentation. Throughout our examination of the fig-frugivore interaction we consider phylogenetic factors and make comparisons between large-scale biogeographical regions. Our dataset supports previous claims that Ficus is the most important plant genus for tropical frugivores. We explore the concept of figs as keystone resources and suggest criteria for future investigations of their dietary importance. Finally, fully referenced lists of frugivores recorded at each Ficus species and of Ficus species in the diet of each frugivore are presented as online appendices. In situations where ecological information is incomplete or its retrieval is impractical, this valuable resource will assist conservationists in evaluating the role of figs or their frugivores in tropical forest sites.

Fig-eating by vertebrate frugivores: a global review.

Chapter 1 – THE ADAPTIVE SIGNIFICANCE OF COLONIALITY IN BIRDS

▪ Abstract Mistletoes are a diverse group of parasitic plants with a worldwide distribution. The hemiparasitic growth form is critical to understanding their biology, buffering variation in resource availability that constrains the distribution and growth of most plants. This is manifested in many aspects of mistletoe life history, including extended phenologies, abundant and high-quality fruits and nectar, and few chemical or structural defenses. Most mistletoe species rely on animals for both pollination and fruit dispersal, and this leads to a broad range of mistletoe-animal interactions. In this review, I summarize research on mistletoe biology and synthesize results from studies of mistletoe-animal interactions. I consolidate records of mistletoe-vertebrate interactions, incorporating species from 97 vertebrate families recorded as consuming mistletoe and from 50 using mistletoe as nesting sites. There is widespread support for regarding mistletoe as a keystone resource, and all quantitative data are...

Mistletoe-a keystone resource in forests and woodlands worldwide

The Rhesus Monkey in North India: An Ecological and Behavioral Study*

Compact handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan

The Book of Indian Birds

1200 species of birds, in 20 orders and numerous families, are known in the Indian subcontinent. This handbook describes their distribution, habits, breeding biology, diet, voice, and other features. Over 100 plates and systematic keys in the text help with identification. Maps show the distribution of many migratory and spatially restricted forms, and a number of line drawings illustrate diagnostic features such as bills and feet. This new compact edition brings together the text of all ten volumes of the original handbook , with 106 plates by the famous American bird painter John Henry Dick depicting all the bird species found in that region. The text and black-and-white text illustrations of the handbook appear here photographically reduced by 30%, with four pages of the original occupying one page of the compact edition . The colour plates appear in the same size as in the original editions. Readership; scholars and students of ornithology and zoology.

Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka

This unique volume depicts all of the bird species in the Indian subcontinent, systematically organized for easy access and quick reference. The book includes 106 plates, 73 in full color by John Henry Dick, the distinguished illustrator. Concise information concerning status, size, habitat, and distribution of the birds is included. The book also features a "Systematic Index of Families and Species" with notes on the characteristics of each family. The volume will be of use to all those interested in the rich variety of Indian birdlife.

Sálim Ali

Papers

Compact handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan

The Book of Indian Birds

Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka

A pictorial guide to the birds of the Indian subcontinent

Communal roosting habits of Indian Birds