Prior to the twentieth century, theories of knowledge were inherently perceptual. Since then, developments in logic, statis- tics, and programming languages have inspired amodal theories that rest on principles fundamentally different from those underlying perception. In addition, perceptual approaches have become widely viewed as untenable because they are assumed to implement record- ing systems, not conceptual systems. A perceptual theory of knowledge is developed here in the context of current cognitive science and neuroscience. During perceptual experience, association areas in the brain capture bottom-up patterns of activation in sensory-motor areas. Later, in a top-down manner, association areas partially reactivate sensory-motor areas to implement perceptual symbols. The stor- age and reactivation of perceptual symbols operates at the level of perceptual components - not at the level of holistic perceptual expe- riences. Through the use of selective attention, schematic representations of perceptual components are extracted from experience and stored in memory (e.g., individual memories of green, purr, hot). As memories of the same component become organized around a com- mon frame, they implement a simulator that produces limitless simulations of the component (e.g., simulations of purr). Not only do such simulators develop for aspects of sensory experience, they also develop for aspects of proprioception (e.g., lift, run) and introspec- tion (e.g., compare, memory, happy, hungry). Once established, these simulators implement a basic conceptual system that represents types, supports categorization, and produces categorical inferences. These simulators further support productivity, propositions, and ab- stract concepts, thereby implementing a fully functional conceptual system. Productivity results from integrating simulators combinato- rially and recursively to produce complex simulations. Propositions result from binding simulators to perceived individuals to represent type-token relations. Abstract concepts are grounded in complex simulations of combined physical and introspective events. Thus, a per- ceptual theory of knowledge can implement a fully functional conceptual system while avoiding problems associated with amodal sym- bol systems. Implications for cognition, neuroscience, evolution, development, and artificial intelligence are explored.

/pdf/perceptual-symbol-systems-4spsk97r61.pdf

Perceptual symbol systems.

https://axon.cs.byu.edu/~dan/673/papers/gentner.pdf

Structure‐Mapping: A Theoretical Framework for Analogy*

Recent work on natural categories suggests a framework for conceptualizing people's knowledge about emotions. Categories of natural objects or events, including emotions, are formed as a result of repeated experiences and become organized around prototypes (Rosch, 1978); the interrelated set of emot

Emotion knowledge: further exploration of a prototype approach.

The authors describe a constructionist theory that accounts for the knowledge-based inferences that are constructed when readers comprehend narrative text. Readers potentially generate a rich variety of inferences when they construct a referential situation model of what the text is about. The proposed constructionist theory specifies that some, but not all, of this information is constructed under most conditions of comprehension. The distinctive assumptions of the constructionist theory embrace a principle of search (or effort) after meaning. According to this principle, readers attempt to construct a meaning representation that addresses the reader's goals, that is coherent at both local and global levels, and that explains why actions, events, and states are mentioned in the text. This study reviews empirical evidence that addresses this theory and contrasts it with alternative theoretical frameworks.

Constructing inferences during narrative text comprehension.

Dual coding theory (DCT) explains human behavior and experience in terms of dynamic associative processes that operate on a rich network of modality-specific verbal and nonverbal (or imagery) representations. We first describe the underlying premises of the theory and then show how the basic DCT mechanisms can be used to model diverse educational phenomena. The research demonstrates that concreteness, imagery, and verbal associative processes play major roles in various educational domains: the representation and comprehension of knowledge, learning and memory of school material, effective instruction, individual differences, achievement motivation and test anxiety, and the learning of motor skills. DCT also has important implications for the science and practice of educational psychology — specifically, for educational research and teacher education. We show not only that DCT provides a unified explanation for diverse topics in education, but also that its mechanistic framework accommodates theories cast in terms of strategies and other high-level psychological processes. Although much additional research needs to be done, the concrete models that DCT offers for the behavior and experience of students, teachers, and educational psychologists further our understanding of educational phenomena and strengthen related pedagogical practices.

/pdf/dual-coding-theory-and-education-10gagx8p9i.pdf

Dual coding theory and education

Schooling and the Acquisition of Knowledge

A conceptual model and empirical analysis of children's acquisition of spatial knowledge

Distracter analysis was introduced as a means of investigating sex differences in mathematical performance. The data were responses to an assessment test given each year from 1976 to 1979 to all sixth-grade children enrolled in California public schools. Loglinear models were used to evaluate the consistency of response by each sex over 4 years. A significant interaction between sex and choice of distracter occurred for a large majority of the items. Hypotheses of sex differences based on Radatz's (1979) information-processing classification of errors were evaluated.

Sex Differences in Mathematical Errors: An Analysis of Distracter Choices.

Gender differences in mathematics test performance that favor males are rarely found on tests of computation or other mathematical symbol manipulations. These differences appear primarily in tests that are labeled as tests of “mathematical reasoning” and consist largely of word problems. The content of the word problems’ cover stories is a possible source of gender bias. Some have suggested that students are discouraged from solving problems for affective reasons when the content of the problem is sex-typed for the opposite sex; cognitive science research on problem-solving processes suggests that familiarity of content would be likely to affect problem-solving performance. To test these hypotheses, an experiment was conducted in which underlying mathematics problems were clothed in four different cover stories: masculine, feminine, neutral familiar, and neutral unfamiliar. No effect of sex-typing was found; there was a highly significant but small effect of familiarity. Ratings of problem characteristics...

Content Effects on Word Problem Performance: A Possible Source of Test Bias?:

The definition of hierarchical structure is reviewed, together with psychometric and experimental evidence regarding the existence of specific structures. Exceptions to hierarchical ordering are frequent enough to merit consideration of an assumption that skill on an item may simply transfer to the next higher item rather than being fully prerequisite to it. In some cases an alternate route hierarchy may occur, with persons either learning an item and then the next item or learning both at the same time. A mathematical model including hierarchical and nonhierarchical options fir a two-component task is presented; an experimental design appropriate to testing the model and related transfer hypotheses is also presented.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/info/1162287

Sandra P. Marshall

Papers

Schooling and the Acquisition of Knowledge

A conceptual model and empirical analysis of children's acquisition of spatial knowledge

Sex Differences in Mathematical Errors: An Analysis of Distracter Choices.

Content Effects on Word Problem Performance: A Possible Source of Test Bias?:

The Identification and Decomposition of Hierarchical Tasks