Hollow micro-/nanostructures are of great interest in many current and emerging areas of technology. Perhaps the best-known example of the former is the use of fly-ash hollow particles generated from coal power plants as partial replacement for Portland cement, to produce concrete with enhanced strength and durability. This review is devoted to the progress made in the last decade in synthesis and applications of hollow micro-/nanostructures. We present a comprehensive overview of synthetic strategies for hollow structures. These strategies are broadly categorized into four themes, which include well-established approaches, such as conventional hard-templating and soft-templating methods, as well as newly emerging methods based on sacrificial templating and template-free synthesis. Success in each has inspired multiple variations that continue to drive the rapid evolution of the field. The Review therefore focuses on the fundamentals of each process, pointing out advantages and disadvantages where appropriate. Strategies for generating more complex hollow structures, such as rattle-type and nonspherical hollow structures, are also discussed. Applications of hollow structures in lithium batteries, catalysis and sensing, and biomedical applications are reviewed.

Hollow Micro-/Nanostructures: Synthesis and Applications**

Thermophysical Properties Research Literature Retrieval Guide Edited by Y. S. Touloukian, J. K. Gerritsen and N. Y. Moore Second edition, revised and expanded. Book 1: Pp. xxi + 819. Book 2: Pp.621. Book 3: Pp. ix + 1315. (New York: Plenum Press, 1967.) n.p.

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Heat and Mass Transfer

Wireless charging is a technology of transmitting power through an air gap to electrical devices for the purpose of energy replenishment. The recent progress in wireless charging techniques and development of commercial products have provided a promising alternative way to address the energy bottleneck of conventionally portable battery-powered devices. However, the incorporation of wireless charging into the existing wireless communication systems also brings along a series of challenging issues with regard to implementation, scheduling, and power management. In this paper, we present a comprehensive overview of wireless charging techniques, the developments in technical standards, and their recent advances in network applications. In particular, with regard to network applications, we review the static charger scheduling strategies, mobile charger dispatch strategies and wireless charger deployment strategies. Additionally, we discuss open issues and challenges in implementing wireless charging technologies. Finally, we envision some practical future network applications of wireless charging.

Wireless Charging Technologies: Fundamentals, Standards, and Network Applications

Based on the concept of band bending at metal/semiconductor interfaces as an energy filter for electrons, we present a theory for the enhancement of the thermoelectric properties of semiconductor materials with metallic nanoinclusions. We show that the Seebeck coefficient can be significantly increased due to a strongly energy-dependent electronic scattering time. By including phonon scattering, we find that the enhancement of $ZT$ due to electron scattering is important for high doping, while at low doping it is primarily due to a decrease in the phonon thermal conductivity.

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Theory of enhancement of thermoelectric properties of materials with nanoinclusions.

This paper reviews the development of energy harvesting for low-power embedded structural health monitoring (SHM) sensing systems. A statistical pattern recognition paradigm for SHM is first presented and the concept of energy harvesting for embedded sensing systems is addressed with respect to the data acquisition portion of this paradigm. Next, various existing and emerging sensing modalities used for SHM and their respective power requirements are summarized followed by a discussion of SHM sensor network paradigms, power requirements for these networks, and power optimization strategies. Various approaches to energy harvesting and energy storage are discussed and limitations associated with the current technology are addressed. The paper concludes by defining some future research directions that are aimed at transitioning the concept of energy harvesting for embedded SHM sensing systems from laboratory research to field-deployed engineering prototypes. Finally, it is noted that many of the technologies discussed herein are applicable to powering any type of low-power embedded sensing system regardless of the application.

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Energy Harvesting for Structural Health Monitoring Sensor Networks

Cobalt oxide hollow nanoparticles derived by bio-templating

A transpiration cooling experiment using an optical heating method that provided a heat flux as high as 234 W/cm 2 on the surface of specimen for a scramjet engine was performed. In this experiment, 19-mm-diam sintered, powdered, stainless-steel tubes and a 25-mm square cross-sectional tube of perforated Inconel tube were used to investigate transpiration cooling effectiveness. The cooling effectiveness by transpiration for each specimen was measured and analyzed. As a result, the transpiration cooling mechanism appeared to be a promising approach to remove a large amount of heat from the engine wall. A preliminary analysis of the transpiration cooling mechanism and a scaling conversion study that translates the results from helium tests into the case when a hydrogen medium is used are included.

Transpiration Cooling Experiment for Scramjet Engine Combustion Chamber by High Heat Fluxes

The concept of microwave-driven smart material actuators was envisioned and developed as the best option to alleviate the complexity and weight associated with a hard-wire-networked power and control system for smart actuator arrays. The patch rectenna array was initially designed for high current output, but has undergone further development for high voltage output devices used in shape control applications. Test results show that more than 200 V of output were obtained from a 6 × 6 array at a far-field exposure (1.8 m away) with an X-band input power of 18 W. The 6 × 6 array patch rectenna was designed to theoretically generate voltages up to 540 V, but practically it has generated voltages in the range between 200 and 300 V. Testing was also performed with a thin layer composite unimorph ferroelectric driver and sensor and electro-active paper as smart actuators attached to the 6 × 6 array. Flexible dipole rectenna arrays built on thin-film-based flexible membranes are most applicable for NASA's various missions, such as microwave-driven shape controls for aircraft morphing and large, ultra-lightweight space structures. An array of dipole rectennas was designed for high voltage output by densely populating Schottky barrier diodes to drive piezoelectric or electrostrictive actuators. The dipole rectenna array will eventually be integrated with a power allocation and distribution logic circuit and microbatteries for storage of excessive power. The roadmap for the development of wireless power drivers based on the rectenna array for shape control requires the development of new membrane materials with proper dielectric constants that are suitable for dipole rectenna arrays.

Microwave power for smart material actuators

The concept of power transmission by a microwave is envisioned as the best option for alleviating the complexity associated with hard-wired control circuitry in controlling smart actuators and robots such as micro-aerial vehicles, biomimetic robots and space vehicles to produce remotely maneuverable capability. A flexible dipole rectenna array is conformably adaptable on the complex structure of vehicles used for practical applications of wireless power. For these applications, various flexible dipole rectennas and arrays were designed, fabricated and characterized over a frequency range of 9–12 GHz with 20 W and 200 W amplifiers through laboratory testing. The irradiance of the microwave power was measured. Also the irradiated power, the output power and the efficiency of the rectenna arrays were evaluated along with the microwave power and frequency. The maximum voltage of 65 VDC was observed from a series connected dipole rectenna array and the maximum current of 2.50 mA was obtained from a parallel connected rectenna array. The efficiency of dipole rectenna arrays ranges from 20% to 50% depending on the input power and the pole configuration. It was also demonstrated that the voltage, current and power output from a dipole rectenna array can be tailored by configuring the dipole rectenna elements in serial and parallel mode connections.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0964-1726/15/3/017/pdf

Performance characterization of flexible dipole rectennas for smart actuator use

In exploiting the unique capabilities of smart actuators for applications in vehicle systems, even in unmanned or micro aerial vehicles, the power issues for smart actuators and devices have not been well addressed. This is due to the fact that the driving power for smart materials has not reached the level of the power specifications for conventional devices and systems. To answer the power issue, we have developed a wireless power transmission technology using a flexible rectenna system and implemented it for a microwave-powered aerial vehicle (MPAV) system. For this application, two flexible dipole rectennas were designed, manufactured and characterized over a frequency range of 9–12 GHz. These flexible dipole rectennas were attached and tested on the complex structure of small MPAVs. The maximum converted power output of a flexible dipole rectenna array was about 300 mA at 80 VDC. The power output from this rectenna was sufficient to run the propellers of the MPAV. Each electrically driven propeller requires approximately 2 W for operation.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0964-1726/15/5/012/pdf

Sang H. Choi

Papers

Cobalt oxide hollow nanoparticles derived by bio-templating

Transpiration Cooling Experiment for Scramjet Engine Combustion Chamber by High Heat Fluxes

Microwave power for smart material actuators

Performance characterization of flexible dipole rectennas for smart actuator use

Microwave power transmission using a flexible rectenna for microwave-powered aerial vehicles