C-phycocyanin (C-PC) is a blue pigment in cyanobacteria, rhodophytes and cryptophytes with fluorescent and antioxidative properties. C-PC is presently extracted from open pond cultures of the cyanobacterium Arthrospira platensis although these cultures are not very productive and open for contaminating organisms. C-PC is considered a healthy ingredient in cyanobacterial-based foods and health foods while its colouring, fluorescent or antioxidant properties are utilised only to a minor extent. However, recent research and developments in C-PC synthesis and functionality have expanded the potential applications of C-PC in biotechnology, diagnostics, foods and medicine: The productivity of C-PC has been increased in heterotrophic, high cell density cultures of the rhodophyte Galdieria sulphuraria that are grown under well-controlled and axenic conditions. C-PC purification protocols based on various chromatographic principles or novel two-phase aqueous extraction methods have expanded in numbers and improved in performance. The functionality of C-PC as a fluorescent dye has been improved by chemical stabilisation of C-PC complexes, while protein engineering has also introduced increased stability and novel biospecific binding sites into C-PC fusion proteins. Finally, our understanding of the physiological functions of C-PC in humans has been improved by a mechanistic hypothesis that links the chemical properties of the phycocyanobilin chromophores of C-PC to the natural antioxidant, bilirubin, and may explain the observed health benefits of C-PC intake. This review outlines how C-PC is produced and utilised and discusses the novel C-PC synthesis procedures and applications.

Production of phycocyanin : a pigment with applications in biology, biotechnology, foods and medicine

Algal chemodiversity and bioactivity: sources of natural variability and implications for commercial application.

Accumulation of energy reserves in algae: From cell cycles to biotechnological applications

Microalgae are the major photosynthesizers on earth and produce important pigments that include chlorophyll a, b and c, β-carotene, astaxanthin, xanthophylls, and phycobiliproteins. Presently, synthetic colorants are used in food, cosmetic, nutraceutical, and pharmaceutical industries. However, due to problems associated with the harmful effects of synthetic colorants, exploitation of microalgal pigments as a source of natural colors becomes an attractive option. There are various factors such as nutrient availability, salinity, pH, temperature, light wavelength, and light intensity that affect pigment production in microalgae. This paper reviews the availability and characteristics of microalgal pigments, factors affecting pigment production, and the application of pigments produced from microalgae. The potential of microalgal pigments as a source of natural colors is enormous as an alternative to synthetic coloring agents, which has limited applications due to regulatory practice for health reasons.

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Availability and Utilization of Pigments from Microalgae

Phycobiliproteins from cyanobacteria: Chemistry and biotechnological applications.

The effect of light intensity (50–300 μmol photons m−2 s−1) and temperature (15–50°C) on chlorophyll a, carotenoid and phycobiliprotein content in Arthronema africanum biomass was studied Maximum growth rate was measured at 300 μmol photons m−2 s−1 and 36°C after 96 h of cultivation The chlorophyll a content increased along with the increase in light intensity and temperature and reached 24% of dry weight at 150 μmol photons m−2 s−1 and 36°C, but it decreased at higher temperatures The level of carotenoids did not change significantly under temperature changes at illumination of 50 and 100 μmol photons m−2 s−1 Carotenoids were about 1% of the dry weight at higher light intensities: 150 and 300 μmol photons m−2 s−1 Arthronema africanum contained C-phycocyanin and allophycocyanin but no phycoerythrin The total phycobiliprotein content was extremely high, more than 30% of the dry algal biomass, thus the cyanobacterium could be deemed an alternative producer of C-phycocyanin A highest total of phycobiliproteins was reached at light intensity of 150 μmol photons m−2 s−1 and temperature of 36°C, C-phycocyanin and allophycocyanin amounting, respectively, to 23% and 12% of the dry algal biomass Extremely low ( 47°C) decreased phycobiliprotein content regardless of light intensity

Effect of light and temperature on the cyanobacterium Arthronema africanum - a prospective phycobiliprotein-producing strain

The effects of different temperatures and light intensities on growth, pigments, sugars, lipids, and proteins, as well as on some antioxidant and proteolytic enzymes of Trachydiscus minutus (Bourr.) H. Ettl, were investigated. The optimum growth temperature and light intensity were 25°C and 2 × 132 μmol photons · m(-2 ) · s(-1) , respectively. Under these conditions, proteins were the main biomass components (33.45% dry weight [dwt]), with high levels of carbohydrates (29% dwt) and lipids (21.77% dwt). T. minutus tolerated temperatures between 20°C and 32°C, with only moderate changes in cell growth and biochemical composition. Extremely low (15°C) and high (40°C) temperatures decreased chl and RUBISCO contents and inhibited cell growth. The biochemical response of the alga to both unfavorable conditions was an increase in lipid content (up to 35.19% dwt) and a decrease in carbohydrates (down to 13.64% dwt) with much less of a change in total protein content (in the range of 30.51%-38.13% dwt). At the same time, the defense system of T. minutus was regulated differently in response to heat or cold treatments. Generally, at 40°C, the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and proteases were drastically elevated, and three polypeptides were overexpressed, whereas the glutathione reductase (GR) and peroxidase (POD) activities were reduced. In contrast, at 15°C, all these enzymes except GR were suppressed. The effect of light was to enhance or decrease the temperature stress responses, depending on intensity. Our studies demonstrate the broad temperature adaptability of T. minutus as well as the potential for the production of valuable algal biomass.

Response of trachydiscus minutus (xanthophyceae) to temperature and light(1).

Eight taxa of cyanobacteria were identified in the thermal spring at Pancharevo (in the Sofia basin, Bulgaria). As well as the widespread Lyngbya thermalis, Phormi- desmis molle (syn. Phormidium molle), Phormidium papyraceum, Phormidium corium and Mastigocladus laminosus, four species were identified for the first time in Bulgaria: Calothrix thermalis, Gloeocapsa gelatinosa, Leibleinia epiphytica and Symploca thermalis.

Cyanobacteria of the thermal spring at Pancharevo, Sofia, Bulgaria

Summary. The growth and composition of xanthophycean Trachydiscus minutus ( Pseudostaurastrum minutum ) were studied. Аlgal density 3.5 g.dm -3 of dry weight was achieved in laboratory, and high lipid content (26 % of dry weight) due to the abundance of triacylglycerols was found. The lipids of alga were characterized with about 26 % myristic and 30 % eicosapentaenoic acids. The first lipid is used in cosmetics, the second as a nutrient additive. Sterols were quantified and GC-MS identified, too.Composition of T. minutus was: proteins (43 %), carbohydrates (25 %), and chlorophyll a (0.6 %). The cultivation was successfully run in pilot plant scale (330 dm 3 , 2 m 2 , in greenhouse), for the first time ever. Growth optimum about 26°C, resistance to contamination, easy centrifugation and drying on foil in a greenhouse, by sunlight, are the technological advantages. Key words: algae; fatty acids; pilot plant cultivation; PUFAs; sterols; Trachydiscus minutus . Abbreviations:

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The alga trachydiscus minutus (pseudostaurastrum minutuм): growth and composition

Fatty acids of twelve species of cyanobacteria grown under different photoautotrophic conditions were studied and their composition was compared with literature data of many other species. We have come to the conclusion that the lipids of cyanobacteria do not contain fatty acids with a chain longer than 18 carbon atoms. In our opinion, omission of an analytical procedure, i.e. purification of fatty acid methyl esters before gas chromatography, leads to incorrect interpretation of the results. Absence or presence of fatty acids was suggested as a useful taxonomic marker and a proper diagnostic indicator in the commercial application of cyanobacterial biomass.

http://znaturforsch.com/ac/v66c/66c0267.pdf

Sevdalina Furnadzhieva

Papers

Effect of light and temperature on the cyanobacterium Arthronema africanum - a prospective phycobiliprotein-producing strain

Response of trachydiscus minutus (xanthophyceae) to temperature and light(1).

Cyanobacteria of the thermal spring at Pancharevo, Sofia, Bulgaria

The alga trachydiscus minutus (pseudostaurastrum minutuм): growth and composition

Do cyanobacterial lipids contain fatty acids longer than 18 carbon atoms