Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism

This 1966 paperback edition of a publication which first appeared in 1963 has by now been widely reviewed as a worthy contribution to the sociological study of deviant behavior. Its current appearance as a paperback is a testimonial both to the quality of the work and to the prominence of deviant behavior in this generation. In general the author places deviance in perspective, identifies types of deviant behavior, considers the role of rule makers and enforcers, and some of the problems in studying deviance. In addition, he develops a sequential model of deviance relying on the concept of career, a concept originally developed in studies of occupations. In his study of a particular kind of deviance, the use of marihuana, the author posits and tests systematically an hypothesis about the genesis of marihuana use for pleasure. The hypothesis traces the sequence of changes in individual attitude

Outsiders Studies in the Sociology of Deviance.

Humanities 270, The Frankfurt School Lecture: Theodor Adorno, On the Fetish-Character in Music and the Regression of Listening

The Social History of Art

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Harvard Dictionary Of Music

Lagu seriosa was the
most important nationalistic song genre in Indonesia in the 1950s and 1960s,
and it became the main attraction of the annual national singing competition,
the Bintang Radio (Radio Star). Little academic work has been done to
investigate how it developed and why this genre that emulated the European art
song, rose to such prominence in Indonesia. The aim of this study is twofold;
to distinguish the role of the genre that led to its growth as a nationalistic
song in Indonesia, and to investigate the use of folk songs in the music to
promote nationalism. Twenty-seven interviews were conducted among the
practitioners who played the key role in the development of lagu seriosa from
the 1950s. As a genre that promoted national Indonesian identity, it lost its
popularity as the rise of popular music infiltrated Indonesia in the 1970s.
This thesis will cover the entire period from its rise to the fall of lagu
seriosa as the definitive nationalist song in Indonesia. The five case studies
of selected songs reflected continuity and change in musical style and over
time. The research extends the theory of art as collective action
by Howard Saul Becker (1974) where collective action is not only crucial but
was treated as a conventional method of composition for the survival of the art
world. I propose the term “variants to the conventions” for the collaborative
process of the art song. I argue that the success of lagu seriosa was fostered
by a group of musicians who functioned as the gatekeepers, referred in this
thesis as the “reference group,” a term coined by Karen Cerulo (1984) to
describe the consciousness with which artists identify with the experts in
their craft. By promoting role models, the reference group cultivated,
monitored and devised various mechanisms so that songs conformed to propaganda
needs of the Indonesian government. The result is that the classical style of
singing propagated by lagu seriosa accommodated the cultivation of patriotic or
propaganda songs during the Guided Democracy period (1959- 1965), particularly
at the height of the Konfrontasi (1963-1966) period.

The History and Development of Lagu Seriosa in the Context of Musical Nationalism in Indonesia

Music was an important tool used by the government to promote and support its policies and positions, affecting both the form and content of new compositions and resulting in a lack of musical diversity by the mid-1960s. The romantic-religious forms of early seriosa gave way to romantic-revolutionary music. The need for new compositions engendered songwriting competitions. The need to popularize the songs led to more choirs and performance groups, published song collections for use in schools, competitions and viewers—all efforts RRI contributed to. The government’s advocation of the infusion of folk music and LEKRA’s enacting of the turba process were intended to make music—and art—representative of the people and accessible to them; they also stifled acceptance of innovative compositions. The reference group promoted acceptance of government requirements while elevating their inclusion through collaboration among musicians. Changing governments meant different priorities. Music and musicians once in favor were no longer. Music once accepted was banned. Musicians were jailed or went into exile. Seriosa songs differed from other types of propaganda songs, however, in their use of poetry as text and incorporation of the forms and instrumentation of regional music. The resulting subtlety in addressing topics of revolution and independence allowed many of these works to survive changing governmental priorities. The most influential music form in Indonesia, seriosa was nonetheless considered elitist, an indication of the need for improved music education.

The Role of Music in the Revolution

The composers, musicians, and performers associated with Bintang Radio and BRTV served as the gatekeepers of the genre. The second-generation composers, who were among the most talented in the country, developed the criteria for the music and the competitions. Their work led to standardization within the genre, while their positions in both music and government allowed them to promote the music broadly. The classical nature of the music lent itself to the talents of classically trained singers across the country. The status of these performers resulting from their involvement in cultural missions throughout the world, their participation and winning in singing competitions, and their high levels of talent and skill not only increased the popularity of the genre but also lifted the profession of singing from a hobby at best to an honorable career. Further increasing the reach of the genre was the introduction of choirs to perform lagu seriosa songs locally, nationally, and internationally. The most famous choir was Ansambel Gembira, another outgrowth of RRI and its involvement with the genre.

Gatekeepers, Singers, and Ansambel Gembira

The chapter begins with a recap of seriosa music, emphasizing the changes in text to reflect the circumstances under which the composers were working and the incorporation of folk music to undergird the genre’s promotion of national identity. The genre also showcased the innovation of Indonesian composers in incorporating these new elements in their works. Influencing the genre were not only RRI-TVRI and its subsidiaries but also print media, such as Zenith, discourses among artists in the sanggar throughout the country, and Soekarno’s endorsement of the music and its singing style. Seriosa also stood in counterpoint to popular Western music, now considered imperialistic, a reflection of moral decadence. As members of the gatekeepers took prominent positions within the government, they promoted the political role of musicians and artists, embracing the creation of artistic works to advance Indonesian nationalism. Musicians who did not conform were, at best, confused and, at worst, traitors. Those who most fervently supported the government’s efforts were heroes, role models of the unfinished revolution. Politicization, however, also meant reversals when those in control were no longer in power. Such reversals contributed to the decline of the genre.

A Reflection of the Nation

Choirs played a major role in the Soekarno government’s efforts to promote national identity. These groups performed throughout Indonesia as well as at embassies abroad and in international events. Many evolved into music and dance groups modeled after the Japanese ensemble Shinseisakuza. The most influential of these choirs was Ansambel Gembira. Originating in Jakarta, Gembira rehearsed at RRI Jakarta, although the choir was not a formal part of the RRI organization. Its members were some of the most talented, versatile musicians in Indonesia; and members of the reference group provided compositions and leadership for the group. Although not formally a part of LEKRA, many of Gembira’s members were, allowing choirs throughout the country access to Gembira’s repertoire and training. Many of the newer compositions Gembira performed, however, were criticized for being too avant-garde rather than representative of the people and for not incorporating folk elements more directly. Such criticisms were setbacks to the progressive, innovative pieces created for the choir and, thus, to the creation of other works associated with lagu seriosa. Politics also affected choirs throughout the country. Encouraged to spread the message of the unfinished revolution and national identity under Soekarno, choirs lost their members, their repertoires, and their influence with the advent of the Soeharto administration.

Sharifah Faizah Syed Mohammed

Papers

The History and Development of Lagu Seriosa in the Context of Musical Nationalism in Indonesia

The Role of Music in the Revolution

Gatekeepers, Singers, and Ansambel Gembira

A Reflection of the Nation

Choirs and the Revolution