This study provided a comprehensive examination of the full range of transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership. Results (based on 626 correlations from 87 sources) revealed an overall validity of .44 for transformational leadership, and this validity generalized over longitudinal and multisource designs. Contingent reward (.39) and laissez-faire (-.37) leadership had the next highest overall relations; management by exception (active and passive) was inconsistently related to the criteria. Surprisingly, there were several criteria for which contingent reward leadership had stronger relations than did transformational leadership. Furthermore, transformational leadership was strongly correlated with contingent reward (.80) and laissez-faire (-.65) leadership. Transformational and contingent reward leadership generally predicted criteria controlling for the other leadership dimensions, although transformational leadership failed to predict leader job performance.

http://m.timothy-judge.com/TA-TF%20Paper--JAP%20published.pdf

Transformational and transactional leadership: a meta-analytic test of their relative validity.

Crisis managers benefit from understanding how crisis communication can be used to protect reputational assets during a crisis. Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) offers a framework for understanding this dynamic. SCCT provides a mechanism for anticipating how stakeholders will react to a crisis in terms of the reputational threat posed by the crisis. Moreover, SCCT projects how people will react to the crisis response strategies used to manage the crisis. From its empirical research emerges a set of evidence-based crisis communication guidelines. The development of SCCT is discussed along with the presentation of its guidelines for crisis communication.

/pdf/protecting-organization-reputations-during-a-crisis-the-c56nbgq8xa.pdf

Protecting Organization Reputations During a Crisis: The Development and Application of Situational Crisis Communication Theory

A situational crisis communication theory (SCCT), which articulates the variables, assumptions, and relationships that should be considered in selecting crisis response strategies to protect an organization’s reputation, is advanced. Although various studies taking a situational approach have touched on certain of the theory’s variables and relationships, this study represents the first attempt to articulate and begin to test a situational theory of crisis communication. SCCT is premised on matching the crisis response to the level of crisis responsibility attributed to a crisis. The study explores one of the basic assumptions of SCCT by assessing whether the predicted correlational relationship between crisis responsibility and organizational reputation occurs across a range of crisis types. Results support the theory’s predictions and suggest ways to refine the theory.

Helping Crisis Managers Protect Reputational Assets: Initial Tests of the Situational Crisis Communication Theory.

In this article we present a model of the processes whereby social actors use impression management behaviors to create and maintain identities as charismatic leaders. Using a dramaturgical and interactive perspective, we examine the roles that the environment, actor (leader), and audience (followers) play in defining the situation and in jointly constructing a “charismatic relationship.” We assert that charismatic leaders' self-systems and situational assessments guide their efforts to manage follower impressions of them, their vision, and their organization. Framing, scripting, staging, and performing constitute the basic phases in this dramaturgical process. Exemplification and promotion are identified as the primary strategies invoked by leaders during the performing phase to construct a charismatic image; facework is employed to protect this image when it is threatened. We also consider how and why followers come to attribute charisma to, identify strongly with, and direct high levels of positive aff...

The Charismatic Relationship: A Dramaturgical Perspective

Framing is a potentially useful paradigm for examining the strategic creation of public relations messages and audience responses. Based on a literature review across disciplines, this article identifies 7 distinct types of framing applicable to public relations. These involve the framing of situations, attributes, choices, actions, issues, responsibility, and news. Potential applications for public relations practice and research are discussed.

/pdf/seven-models-of-framing-implications-for-public-relations-fmxr6l6nf3.pdf

Seven Models of Framing: Implications for Public Relations

This study provides a partial test of a symbolic approach to crisis management. The symbolic approach examines the strategies used to respond to crises. The study concentrated on the match between crisis type and crisis response strategy. An experimental design was used to explore how crisis type, organization performance history and crisis response were associated with the image of an organization. Additional analyses explored how causal attributions varied according to crisis type. For the cases tested, the results supported the use of the crisis response strategies recommended by the symbolic approach. The results of the experiment supported the basic assumptions of the approach. The implications and directions for future investigations using the symbolic model are discussed.

Communication and Attributions in a Crisis: An Experimental Study in Crisis Communication

The handbook of crisis communication

Comparing apology to equivalent crisis response strategies: Clarifying apology's role and value in crisis communication

Purpose – Crisis managers believe in the value of a favorable, pre‐crisis reputation. The prior reputation can create a halo effect that protects an organization during a crisis. The prior reputation/halo might work as a shield that deflects the potential reputational damage from a crisis. Or the prior reputation/halo might encourage stakeholders to give the organization the benefit of the doubt in the crisis (reduce attributions of crisis responsibility). Oddly, researchers have had little luck in producing a halo effect for prior reputation in crisis situations. The purpose of this paper is to present two studies designed to test if the halo effect could occur and which of the two dynamics of the prior reputation halo best serve to explain the benefits of a favorable, pre‐crisis reputation.Design/methodology/approach – The research focuses on a set of studies conducted to illustrate the halo effect and to explore how it serves to protect an organization during a crisis. The implications of the findings ...

Sherry J. Holladay

Papers

Helping Crisis Managers Protect Reputational Assets: Initial Tests of the Situational Crisis Communication Theory.

Communication and Attributions in a Crisis: An Experimental Study in Crisis Communication

The handbook of crisis communication

Comparing apology to equivalent crisis response strategies: Clarifying apology's role and value in crisis communication

Unpacking the halo effect: reputation and crisis management