textObjective Access to healthcare is mostly contingent on out-of-pocket spending (OOPS) by health seekers, particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). This would require many LMICs to raise enough funds to achieve universal health insurance coverage. But, are individuals or households willing to pay for health insurance, and how much? What factors positively affect WTP for health insurance? We wanted to examine the evidence for this, through a review of the literature. Methods We systematically searched databases up to February 2016 and included studies of individual or household WTP for health insurance. Two authors appraised the identified studies. We estimated the WTP as a percentage of GDP per capita, and adjusted net national income per capita of each country. We used meta-analysis to calculate WTP means and confidence intervals, and vote-counting to identify the variables that more often affected WTP. Result 16 studies (21 articles) from ten countries met the inclusion criteria. The mean WTP of individuals was 1.18% of GDP per capita and 1.39% of adjusted net national income per capita. The corresponding figures for households were 1.82% and 2.16%, respectively. Increases in family size, education level and income were consistently correlated with higher WTP for insurance, and increases in age were correlated with reduced WTP. Conclusions The WTP for healthcare insurance among rural households in LMICs was just below 2% of the GPD per capita. The findings demonstrate that in moving towards universal health coverage in LMICs, governments should not rely on households' premiums as a major financing source and should increase their fiscal capacity for an equitable health care system using other sources.

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Systematic review of willingness to pay for health insurance in low and middle income countries

Background Out-of-pocket payments for health care services lead to decreased use of health services and catastrophic health expenditures. To reduce out-of-pocket payments and improve access to health care services, some countries have introduced community-based health insurance (CBHI) schemes, especially for those in rural communities or who work in the informal sector. However, there has been little focus on equity in access to health care services in CBHI schemes. Methods We searched PubMed, Web of Science, African Journals OnLine, and Africa-Wide Information for studies published in English between 2000 and August 2014 that examined the effect of socioeconomic status on willingness to join and pay for CBHI, actual enrollment, use of health care services, and drop-out from CBHI. Our search yielded 755 articles. After excluding duplicates and articles that did not meet our inclusion criteria (conducted in low- and middle-income countries and involved analysis based on socioeconomic status), 49 articles remained that were included in this review. Data were extracted by one author, and the second author reviewed the extracted data. Disagreements were mutually resolved between the 2 authors. The findings of the studies were analyzed to identify their similarities and differences and to identify any methodological differences that could account for contradictory findings. Results Generally, the rich were more willing to pay for CBHI than the poor and actual enrollment in CBHI was directly associated with socioeconomic status. Enrollment in CBHI was price-elastic-as premiums decreased, enrollment increased. There were mixed results on the effect of socioeconomic status on use of health care services among those enrolled in CBHI. We found a high drop-out rate from CBHI schemes that was not related to socioeconomic status, although the most common reason for dropping out of CBHI was lack of money to pay the premium. Conclusion The effectiveness of CBHI schemes in achieving universal health coverage in low- and middle-income countries is questionable. A flexible payment plan where the poor can pay in installments, subsidized premiums for the poor, and removal of co-pays are measures that can increase enrollment and use of CBHI by the poor.

Inequitable Access to Health Care by the Poor in Community-Based Health Insurance Programs: A Review of Studies From Low- and Middle-Income Countries.

Objective: The substantial level of out-of-pocket expenditure for health care by the population causes policy makers to draw particular attention to the proposal of a social health insurance for uninsured members of the community. Hence, it is essential to gather reliable information about the amount of Willingness To Pay (WTP) for health insurance. We assessed the WTP for health insurance in Iran in order to suggest an affordable social health insurance. Method: The study sample included 300 household heads in all Iranian provinces. The double bounded dichotomous choice approach was used to elicit the WTP. Result: The average WTP for social health insurance per person per month was 137 000 Rial (5.5 $US). Household heads with higher levels of education, income and those who worked had more WTP for the health insurance. Besides, the WTP increased in direct proportion to the number of insured members of each household and in inverse proportion to the family size. Conclusions: From a policy point of view, the WTP value can be used as a premium in a society. An important finding of this study is that although households’ Willingness To Pay is not more than the total insurance premium, households are willing to pay more than the premium they ought to pay for health insurance coverage. That is, total insurance premium is 150 000 Rials and households ought to pay approximately half of this sum. This can afford policy makers the ideal opportunity to provide good insurance coverage for medical services according to the need of society.

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Willingness to pay for the social health insurance in Iran.

Background In sub-Saharan Africa, out-of-pocket expenditures constitute approximately 40% of total healthcare expenditures, imposing huge financial burdens on the poor. To tackle the effects of out-of-pocket payment for healthcare services, Ethiopia has been focusing on implementation and expansion of a community-based health insurance (CBHI) program since 2011. This study assessed willingness to pay for CBHI scheme and associated factors among rural communities in Gemmachis district, eastern Ethiopia. Methods Community-based cross-sectional study was conducted among 446 randomly selected participants in Gemmachis district from April 1 to April 30, 2019. Data were collected from participants using pretested structured questionnaires through face-to-face interview. Data were entered into EpiData version 3.1 and analyzed using SPSS version 24. Bivariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses were conducted to identify factors associated with willingness to pay for CBHI. Results A total of 440 (98.7%) participants were involved in the study. Three in every four (74.8%) participants were willing to pay for CBHI (95% CI: 70.7%, 78.9%). Primary education (AOR=5.1, 95% CI: 2.4, 11.1), being merchant (AOR=0.23, 95% CI: 0.10, 0.51), housewife (AOR=3.8, 95% CI: 1.3, 11.0), poor (AOR=2.5, 95% CI: 1.3, 4.7), illness in the last one year (AOR=3.1, 95% CI, 1.9, 5.2), good knowledge about CBHI (AOR=2.3, 95% CI: 1.5, 3.6) and access to public health facility (AOR=2.0,95% CI: 1.1, 3.7) were all significantly associated with willingness to pay for CBHI. Conclusion A significant proportion of participants were willing to pay for CBHI scheme. Education, occupation, wealth status, illness in the last one year, knowledge about CBHI and access to healthcare facility were factors significantly associated with willingness to pay for CBHI. If the scheme is to serve as a means to provide access to health service, the premium for membership should be tailored and customized by individual socioeconomic factors.

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Willingness to Pay for Community-Based Health Insurance Scheme and Associated Factors Among Rural Communities in Gemmachis District, Eastern Ethiopia.

Background: Complementary health insurance is increasingly used to remedy the limitations and shortcomings of the basic health insurance benefit packages. Hence, it is essential to gather reliable information about the amount of Willingness to Pay (WTP) for health insurance. We assessed the WTP for health insurance in Iran in order to suggest an affordable complementary health insurance. Methods: The study sample consisted of 300 household heads all over provinces of Iran in 2013. The method applied was double bounded dichotomous choice and open-ended question approach of contingent valuation. Results: The average WTP for complementary health insurance per person per month by double bounded dichotomous choice and open-ended question method respectively was 199000 and 115300 Rials (8 and 4.6 USD, respectively). Household’s heads with higher levels of income and those who worked had more WTP for the health insurance. Besides, the WTP increased in direct proportion to the number of insured members of each household and in inverse proportion to the family size. Conclusion: The WTP value can be used as a premium in a society. As an important finding, the study indicated that the households were willing to pay higher premiums than currently collected for the complementary health insurance coverage in Iran. This offers the policy makers the opportunity to increase the premium and provide good benefits package for insured people of country then better risk pooling.

https://ijph.tums.ac.ir/index.php/ijph/article/download/10998/5684

Willingness to Pay for Complementary Health Care Insurance in Iran

The study aimed to assess the demand for health insurance, gather evidence on willingness to pay (WTP) for health insurance and its determining factors amongst the urban poor in Mumbai. This was as...

Morbidity, Health Expenditure and Willingness to Pay for Health Insurance amongst the Urban Poor: A Case Study

The study aims to assess the demand for health insurance, gather evidence on willingness to pay for it and its determining factors amongst the urban poor in Mumbai. This was ascertained through dichotomous bidding process on 300 households. Results of the multivariate regression model suggest that households with presence of morbid conditions and prior experience of inpatient admissions were more likely to join and pay for health insurance. They indicate the need for a state-subsidized insurance scheme as more than 50 per cent of the people willing to pay expressed their inability to pay more than one per cent of their annual income.

Shinjini Mondal

Papers

Morbidity, Health Expenditure and Willingness to Pay for Health Insurance amongst the Urban Poor: A Case Study

Willingness to Pay for Health Insurance amongst the Urban Poor: Evidence from a Slum in Mumbai, India