Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the physical, biochemical, and nutritional aspects of cheese. Cheese is the most diverse, most scientifically interesting, and most challenging group of dairy products. While most dairy products, if properly manufactured and stored, are biologically, biochemically, and chemically very stable, cheeses are biologically and biochemically dynamic and, consequently, inherently unstable. Cheese manufacture and ripening involves a complex series of consecutive and concomitant microbiological, biochemical, and chemical events, which, if synchronized and balanced, lead to products with highly desirable flavors, but when unbalanced, result in off-flavors. Considering that a basically similar raw material (milks from a very limited number of species) is subjected to a generally common manufacturing protocol, it is fascinating that such a diverse range of products can be produced.

Cheese: physical, biochemical, and nutritional aspects.

https://www.dental.theclinics.com/article/S0011-8532(02)00102-7/pdf

Nutrition and dental caries.

Earlier studies (Kashket et al., 1991) showed that particles of high-starch snack foods remained longer on the teeth than those of high-sucrose, low-starch foods. The question arose whether the prolonged presence of food particles enhances cariogenicity. A study was undertaken to measure sugars, starches, and metabolic acids in retained food particles. Subjects consumed portions of different foods, and particles were removed from all bicuspids and first molars at defined times after swallowing. Dry weights, sugars, and short-chain carboxylic acids were determined. High-sucrose foods were cleared rapidly from the teeth, while high-starch foods were retained for up to 20 min. Sucrose, glucose, and fructose persisted in the retained particles. Particles of high-starch foods accumulated maltose and maltotriose, presumably from the breakdown of starch by salivary amylase. At maximum, maltose plus maltotriose constituted 94% of total sugars in particles of potato chips; corresponding values in doughnuts, peanut butter cookies, and salted crackers were 43, 51, and 61%, respectively. Total fermentable sugars in the particles of high-starch foods were similar to those for the high-sucrose confectionery products. Carboxylic acids accumulated within the particles, presumably due to the fermentation of the sugars by entrapped salivary micro-organisms. At maximum (5 to 7 min), acetic, formic, lactic, and propionic acids rose 17-, 30-, 15-, and 1.3-fold, respectively, in doughnuts, and to smaller degrees in potato chips, salted crackers, and chocolate-caramel-peanut bars. In summary, the study demonstrated the persistence of sugars, the progressive accumulation of starch breakdown products, and the fermentation of the accumulated sugars in retained food particles. The findings support the view that high-starch foods contribute to the development of caries lesions.

Accumulation of Fermentable Sugars and Metabolic Acids in Food Particles that Become Entrapped on the Dentition

The relationship between nutrition and dental health has been a topic of interest for many years. Recently, the cariostatic properties of cheese have been the subject of intensive research. Most of these studies suggest that the use of cheese as the final food in a meal will help to reduce caries. Several mechanisms by which cheese may reduce enamel demineralization have been proposed. Chewing cheese stimulates saliva flow. The alkaline nature of saliva buffers the acids formed in plaque. There is also an increased rate of sugar clearance due to the diluting action of cheese-stimulated saliva. Research has also suggested that chewing cheese may reduce the levels of cariogenic bacteria. This may be secondary to the reduced incidence of caries as conditions within a carious lesion tend to promote the growth of these organisms. The high calcium and phosphorus content seems to be another factor in the cariostatic mechanism of cheese. Both casein and whey protein seem to be involved in the reduction of enamel demineralization. Casein phosphopeptides may also be responsible for some anticariogenicity by concentrating calcium and phosphate in plaque. An overview of the effect of milk on dental caries is also presented in this review.

The effect of cheese on dental caries: a review of the literature.

Cheese is widely regarded as a nutritious food and this has contributed to its enduring popularity amongst consumers. The nutritional composition of cheese varies between different types but, in general, cheese is high in fat, saturated fat and also contains cholesterol. Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and phytanic acid are two fatty acids found in cheese which have reported health benefits. The protein content of cheese ranges from 3 to 40 %. Several peptides, formed by the hydrolysis of proteins during cheese production, have demonstrated biological activities including antihypertensive, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. Cheese is a good source of vitamin A, riboflavin and vitamin B12 and, due to its high-fat content, cheese is suitable for fortification with vitamin D. Cheese is a particularly good source of bioavailable calcium and has also been successfully fortified with iron, zinc and selenium. There is an association between cheese consumption and a reduction in dental caries which has been attributed to the high content of calcium, phosphate and casein in cheese. Mycotoxins are fungal metabolites which can arise in cheese as a result of direct or indirect contamination and have been shown to be cytotoxic and carcinogenic in animals. The presence of mycotoxins can be limited by reducing the contamination of animal feedstuffs and maintaining good sanitation throughout cheese manufacture and storage. Biogenic amines, such as histamine and tyramine, are produced by decarboxylation of amino acids during the normal cheese maturation process but are more often associated with the presence of spoilage microorganisms. Histamine and tyramine may induce poisoning in susceptible individuals and their presence in cheese should be controlled.

Nutritional Aspects of Cheese

The use of the animal model and the Konig-Hofer program-feeding machine is a valuable tool in the research effort to identify the factors contributing to dental caries. As this methodology provides uniform host, microflora, and frequency components, the food is the variable being evaluated. The relative cariogenicity of food is dependent on variations in the composition, texture, solubility, retentiveness, and ability to stimulate saliva flow. The results of these experiments indicated the equal importance of all food-related parameters on dental caries formation. If the composition of foods was solely responsible for dental caries formation, all three of the granola bars should have had similar relative cariogenicity values. This was not true. Granola bar no. 3, which was crispier in texture and less moist, had a third the relative cariogenicity value of granola bars nos. 1 and 2. As reported by other dental researchers, the production of dental caries is food related, but not simplistic in nature. Dental caries is the outcome of complicated interactions, all of which are equally important in the progress of this disease.

https://jada.ada.org/article/S0002-8177(84)94018-2/pdf

Stanley M. Tarka

Papers

The cariogenic potential of several snack foods

Caries potential evaluated