Correlation is a statistical method used to assess a possible linear association between two continuous variables. It is simple both to calculate and to interpret. However, misuse of correlation is so common among researchers that some statisticians have wished that the method had never been devised at all. The aim of this article is to provide a guide to appropriate use of correlation in medical research and to highlight some misuse. Examples of the applications of the correlation coefficient have been provided using data from statistical simulations as well as real data. Rule of thumb for interpreting size of a correlation coefficient has been provided.

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Statistics corner: A guide to appropriate use of correlation coefficient in medical research.

Increasing emphasis has been placed on the use of effect size reporting in the analysis of social science data. Nonetheless, the use of effect size reporting remains inconsistent, and interpretation of effect size estimates continues to be confused. Researchers are presented with numerous effect sizes estimate options, not all of which are appropriate for every research question. Clinicians also may have little guidance in the interpretation of effect sizes relevant for clinical practice. The current article provides a primer of effect size estimates for the social sciences. Common effect sizes estimates, their use, and interpretations are presented as a guide for researchers.

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An effect size primer: A guide for clinicians and researchers.

This book gives an up-to-date overview of methodological and data-analytical issues of cross-cultural studies. Written by leading experts in the field, it presents the most important tools for doing cross-cultural research and outlines design considerations, methods, and analytical techniques that can improve ecological validity and help researchers to avoid pitfalls in cross-cultural psychology. By focusing on the relevant research questions that can be tackled with particular methods, it provides practical guidance on how to translate conceptual questions into decisions on study design and statistical techniques. Featuring examples from cognitive and educational assessment, personality, health, and intercultural communication and management, and illustrating key techniques in feature boxes, this concise and accessible guide is essential reading for researchers, graduate students, and professionals who work with culture-comparative data.

Methods and Data Analysis for Cross-Cultural Research

Problem Health-risk behaviors contribute to the leading causes of morbidity and mortality among youth and adults in the United States. In addition, significant health disparities exist among demographic subgroups of youth defined by sex, race/ethnicity, and grade in school and between sexual minority and nonsexual minority youth. Population-based data on the most important health-related behaviors at the national, state, and local levels can be used to help monitor the effectiveness of public health interventions designed to protect and promote the health of youth at the national, state, and local levels. Reporting period covered September 2016-December 2017. Description of the system The Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS) monitors six categories of priority health-related behaviors among youth and young adults: 1) behaviors that contribute to unintentional injuries and violence; 2) tobacco use; 3) alcohol and other drug use; 4) sexual behaviors related to unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections (STIs), including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection; 5) unhealthy dietary behaviors; and 6) physical inactivity. In addition, YRBSS monitors the prevalence of other health-related behaviors, obesity, and asthma. YRBSS includes a national school-based Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) conducted by CDC and state and large urban school district school-based YRBSs conducted by state and local education and health agencies. Starting with the 2015 YRBSS cycle, a question to ascertain sexual identity and a question to ascertain sex of sexual contacts were added to the national YRBS questionnaire and to the standard YRBS questionnaire used by the states and large urban school districts as a starting point for their questionnaires. This report summarizes results from the 2017 national YRBS for 121 health-related behaviors and for obesity, overweight, and asthma by demographic subgroups defined by sex, race/ethnicity, and grade in school and by sexual minority status; updates the numbers of sexual minority students nationwide; and describes overall trends in health-related behaviors during 1991-2017. This reports also summarizes results from 39 state and 21 large urban school district surveys with weighted data for the 2017 YRBSS cycle by sex and sexual minority status (where available). Results Results from the 2017 national YRBS indicated that many high school students are engaged in health-risk behaviors associated with the leading causes of death among persons aged 10-24 years in the United States. During the 30 days before the survey, 39.2% of high school students nationwide (among the 62.8% who drove a car or other vehicle during the 30 days before the survey) had texted or e-mailed while driving, 29.8% reported current alcohol use, and 19.8% reported current marijuana use. In addition, 14.0% of students had taken prescription pain medicine without a doctor's prescription or differently than how a doctor told them to use it one or more times during their life. During the 12 months before the survey, 19.0% had been bullied on school property and 7.4% had attempted suicide. Many high school students are engaged in sexual risk behaviors that relate to unintended pregnancies and STIs, including HIV infection. Nationwide, 39.5% of students had ever had sexual intercourse and 9.7% had had sexual intercourse with four or more persons during their life. Among currently sexually active students, 53.8% reported that either they or their partner had used a condom during their last sexual intercourse. Results from the 2017 national YRBS also indicated many high school students are engaged in behaviors associated with chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, and diabetes. Nationwide, 8.8% of high school students had smoked cigarettes and 13.2% had used an electronic vapor product on at least 1 day during the 30 days before the survey. Forty-three percent played video or computer games or used a computer for 3 or more hours per day on an average school day for something that was not school work and 15.4% had not been physically active for a total of at least 60 minutes on at least 1 day during the 7 days before the survey. Further, 14.8% had obesity and 15.6% were overweight. The prevalence of most health-related behaviors varies by sex, race/ethnicity, and, particularly, sexual identity and sex of sexual contacts. Specifically, the prevalence of many health-risk behaviors is significantly higher among sexual minority students compared with nonsexual minority students. Nonetheless, analysis of long-term temporal trends indicates that the overall prevalence of most health-risk behaviors has moved in the desired direction. Interpretation Most high school students cope with the transition from childhood through adolescence to adulthood successfully and become healthy and productive adults. However, this report documents that some subgroups of students defined by sex, race/ethnicity, grade in school, and especially sexual minority status have a higher prevalence of many health-risk behaviors that might place them at risk for unnecessary or premature mortality, morbidity, and social problems (e.g., academic failure, poverty, and crime). Public health action YRBSS data are used widely to compare the prevalence of health-related behaviors among subpopulations of students; assess trends in health-related behaviors over time; monitor progress toward achieving 21 national health objectives; provide comparable state and large urban school district data; and take public health actions to decrease health-risk behaviors and improve health outcomes among youth. Using this and other reports based on scientifically sound data is important for raising awareness about the prevalence of health-related behaviors among students in grades 9-12, especially sexual minority students, among decision makers, the public, and a wide variety of agencies and organizations that work with youth. These agencies and organizations, including schools and youth-friendly health care providers, can help facilitate access to critically important education, health care, and high-impact, evidence-based interventions.

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Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance — United States, 2017

Problem: Priority health-risk behaviors, which are behaviors that contribute to the leading causes of morbidity and mortality among youth and adults, often are established during childhood and adolescence, extend into adulthood, and are interrelated and preventable. Reporting Period Covered: September 2010-December 2011. Description of the System: The Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS) monitors six categories of priority health-risk behaviors among youth and young adults: 1) behaviors that contribute to unintentional injuries and violence; 2) tobacco use; 3) alcohol and other drug use; 4) sexual behaviors that contribute to unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection; 5) unhealthy dietary behaviors; and 6) physical inactivity. In addition, YRBSS monitors the prevalence of obesity and asthma. YRBSS includes a national school-based Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) conducted by CDC and state and large urban school district school-based YRBSs conducted by state and local education and health agencies. This report summarizes results from the 2011 national survey, 43 state surveys, and 21 large urban school district surveys conducted among students in grades 9-12. Results: Results from the 2011 national YRBS indicated that many high school students are engaged in priority health-risk behaviors associated with the leading causes of death among persons aged 10-24 years in the United States. During the 30 days before the survey, 32.8% of high school students nationwide had texted or e-mailed while driving, 38.7% had drunk alcohol, and 23.1% had used marijuana. During the 12 months before the survey, 32.8% of students had been in a physical fight, 20.1% had ever been bullied on school property, and 7.8% had attempted suicide. Many high school students nationwide are engaged in sexual risk behaviors associated with unintended pregnancies and STDs, including HIV infection. Nearly half (47.4%) of students had ever had sexual intercourse, 33.7% had had sexual intercourse during the 3 months before the survey (i.e., currently sexually active), and 15.3% had had sexual intercourse with four or more people during their life. Among currently sexually active students, 60.2% had used a condom during their last sexual intercourse. Results from the 2011 national YRBS also indicate many high school students are engaged in behaviors associated with the leading causes of death among adults aged ≥25 years in the United States. During the 30 days before the survey, 18.1% of high school students had smoked cigarettes and 7.7% had used smokeless tobacco. During the 7 days before the survey, 4.8% of high school students had not eaten fruit or drunk 100% fruit juices and 5.7% had not eaten vegetables. Nearly one-third (31.1%) had played video or computer games for 3 or more hours on an average school day. Interpretation: Since 1991, the prevalence of many priority health-risk behaviors among high school students nationwide has decreased. However, many high school students continue to engage in behaviors that place them at risk for the leading causes of morbidity and mortality. Variations were observed in many health-risk behaviors by sex, race/ethnicity, and grade. The prevalence of some health-risk behaviors varied substantially among states and large urban school districts. Public Health Action: YRBS data are used to measure progress toward achieving 20 national health objectives for Healthy People 2020 and one of the 26 leading health indicators; to assess trends in priority health-risk behaviors among high school students; and to evaluate the impact of broad school and community interventions at the national, state, and local levels. More effective school health programs and other policy and programmatic interventions are needed to reduce risk and improve health outcomes among youth. Language: en

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Youth risk behavior surveillance - United States, 2011.

This introductory text provides students with a conceptual understanding of basic statistical procedures, as well as the computational skills needed to complete them. The clear presentation, accessible language, and step-by-step instruction make it easy for students from a variety of social science disciplines to grasp the material. The scenarios presented in chapter exercises span the curriculum, from political science to marketing, so that students make a connection between their own area of interest and the study of statistics. Unique coverage focuses on concepts critical to understanding current statistical research such as power and sample size, multiple comparison tests, multiple regression, and analysis of covariance. Additional SPSS coverage throughout the text includes computer printouts and expanded discussion of their contents in interpreting the results of sample exercises. 1. Introduction. 2. Organizing and Graphing Data. 3. Describing Distributions: Individual Scores, Central Tendency, and Variation. 4. The Normal Distribution. 5. Correlation: A Measure of Relationship. 6. Linear Regression: Prediction. 7. Sampling, Probability, and Sampling Distributions. 8. Hypothesis Testing: One-Sample Case for the Mean. 9. Estimation: One-Sample Case for the Mean. 10. Hypothesis Testing: One-Sample Case for Other Statistics. 11. Hypothesis Testing: Two-Sample Case for the Mean. 12. Hypothesis Testing: Two-Sample Case for Other Statistics. 13. Determining Power and Sample Size. 14. Hypothesis Testing, K-Sample Case: Analysis of Variance, One-Way Classification. 15. Multiple-Comparison Procedures. 16. Analysis of Variance, Two-Way Classification. 17. Linear Regression: Estimation and Hypothesis Testing. 18. Multiple Linear Regression. 19. Analysis of Covariance. 20. Other Correlation Coefficients. 21. Chi-Square (X2) Tests for Frequencies. 22. Other Nonparametric Tests.

Applied statistics for the behavioral sciences

Each chapter concludes with a "Summary," "Key Concepts," "Exercises," "Notes," and "References." Preface. Acknowledgments. 1.Educational Research: Its Nature and Characteristics. Introduction. The Nature of Educational Research. Classification of Educational Research. The Role of Theory. The Activities of the Research Process. 2.Identification of a Research Problem. Selection of a Research Problem. Statement of the Research Problem. 3.The Review of the Literature. The Activities of the Review of the Literature. Sources of Information. Computer Searches. Selecting Studies for the Review of the Literature. Assembling and Summarizing Information. Interpreting and Using Information. 4.Research Design in Quantitative Research. The Purposes of Research Design. The Concept of Controlling Variance. Characteristics of Good Research Design. 5.Experimental Research. The Meaning of Experimental Design. Criteria for a Well-Designed Experiment. Posttest-Only Control Group Design. Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design. Solomon Four-Group Design. Factorial Designs. Repeated Measures Designs. Designs Extended in Time. Interpreting Results of Experiments. Randomness and Representativeness. 6.Quasi-Experimental Research. The Problems of Validity. Posttest-Only, Nonequivalent Control Group Design. Pretest-Posttest, Nonequivalent Control Group Design. Time Series Designs. Single-Subject Designs. Action Research and Quasi-Experimental Research. 7.Survey Research. Survey Research: Its Scope and Description. Survey Designs. The Methodology of Survey Research. Questionnaire Surveys. Interview Surveys. Other Surveys. Analyzing and Reporting Survey Results. 8.Research Design in Qualitative Research. The Epistemology of Qualitative Research. Components of Research Design. Types of Designs in Qualitative Research. Perspectives for Qualitative Research. Reliability and Validity of Qualitative Research. Use of Computers in Qualitative Research. 9.Historical Research. The Value of Historical Research. Sources of Information in Historical Research. The Methodology of Historical Research. Quantitative Methods in Historical Research. Comments on the Reporting of Historical Research. 10.Ethnographic Research. The Nature of Ethnography in Education. A Conceptual Schema for Ethnographic Research. The Process of Ethnographic Research. Examples of Ethnographic Research in Education. The Reliability and Validity of Ethnographic Research. The Role of Ethnographic Research. 11.Sampling Designs. The Concept of a Random Sample. Criteria for a Sampling Design. Stratified Random Sampling. Cluster Sampling. Systematic Sampling. Considerations in Determining Sample Size - Random Sampling. Purposeful Sampling. 12.Measurement and Data Collection. Concepts of Measurement. The Variables Measured in Educational Research. Tests and Inventories Used for Measurement. Measures Involving Holistic Scoring. Where to Find Test Information. Scoring and Data Preparation. 13.Data Analysis: Descriptive Statistics. The Multiple Meanings of Statistics. Distributions. Correlation - A Measure of Relationship. Data Analysis by Computer. 14.Data Analysis: Inferential Statistics. Context for Using Inferential Statistics. Testing Hypotheses and Estimating Parameters. Inferences from Statistics to Parameters: A Review. Parametric Analyses. Nonparametric Analysis. Correlational Analyses. Selecting an Appropriate Statistical Analysis. Comments about Statistical Analysis. Meta-Analysis. 15.Communicating about Research. Major Sections of the Research Proposal. Major Sections of the Research Report. Other Sections of the Research Report. Putting a Report Together. Guidelines for Presenting Papers at Meetings. Presentations to Dissertation and Thesis Committees. 16.Evaluating Research Reports. Types of Errors and Shortcomings in Reports. Critiquing Major Sections of a Research Report. Overall Impressions When Evaluating a Report. The Evaluation of Proposals. Appendix 1: Conducting a CD-ROM Search Using SilverPlatter. Appendix 2: Ethical and Legal Considerations in Conducting Research. Appendix 3: Solutions to Exercises. Appendix 4: Tables. Table A. Ordinates and Areas of the Normal Curve. Table B. Critical Values of t. Table C. Upper Percentage Points of the x2 Distribution. Table D. Upper Percentage Points of the F-Distribution. Table E. Critical Values of the Correlation Coefficient. Glossary of Research Methods Terms. Name Index. Subject Index. Disk Instructions.

Research Methods in Education: An Introduction

Introduction to Research Methods in EducationResearch Methods in EducationResearch and Evaluation in Education and PsychologyResearch Methods for EducationPreparing Literature ReviewsUsing Creative ArtsBased Research Methods in School SettingsResearch Methods in EducationThe SAGE Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Measurement, and EvaluationResearch Methods for Educational DialogueResearch Methods in EducationWriting a Proposal for Your Dissertation100 Activities for Teaching Research MethodsHandbook of Complementary Methods in Education ResearchThe Handbook of Critical Theoretical Research Methods in EducationHandbook of Design Research Methods in EducationResearch Methods in EducationIntroduction to Research Methods in EducationQualitative Research in EducationResearch Methods in Educational Leadership and ManagementHigher Education Research MethodologyResearch Methods for EducationCreative Research Methods in EducationResearch Methods in EducationResearch Methods and Methodologies in EducationQuantitative Research in EducationEthics and Education ResearchResearch Methods for Social Justice and Equity in EducationFoundations of Qualitative ResearchMethods in Educational ResearchResearch Methods in Learning Design and TechnologyResearch Methods in Educational Leadership and ManagementVisual Research Methods in Educational ResearchReason & RigorUsing Case Study in Education ResearchPractical Research Methods in EducationResearch Methods and Methodologies in EducationResearch Methods in EducationResearch and Evaluation Methods in Special EducationInquiring in the ClassroomQualitative Research in Education: A User's Guide

Stephen G. Jurs

Papers

Applied statistics for the behavioral sciences

Research Methods in Education: An Introduction

Research Methods in Education: An Introduction (8th Edition)

Educational measurement and testing

Evaluation of instruction in individually guided education