Common maxims about beauty suggest that attractiveness is not important in life. In contrast, both fitness-related evolutionary theory and socialization theory suggest that attractiveness influences development and interaction. In 11 meta-analyses, the authors evaluate these contradictory claims, demonstrating that (a) raters agree about who is and is not attractive, both within and across cultures; (b) attractive children and adults are judged more positively than unattractive children and adults, even by those who know them; (c) attractive children and adults are treated more positively than unattractive children and adults, even by those who know them; and (d) attractive children and adults exhibit more positive behaviors and traits than unattractive children and adults. Results are used to evaluate social and fitness-related evolutionary theories and the veracity of maxims about beauty.

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Maxims or myths of beauty? A meta-analytic and theoretical review.

This article consists of four sections: The first section elucidates a general theory of social behavior—equity theory. Equity theory consists of four propositions designed to predict when individuals will perceive that they are justly treated and how they will react when they find themselves enmeshed in unjust relationships. The second section summarizes the extensive research that has been conducted to lest equity theory. The third section points out the ways in which equity theory interlocks with other major social psychological theories. The final section hints at some ways in which equity theory can be applied to understanding social problems. THE THEORETICAL FORMULATION The proposition that individuals seek for themselves maximum reward at minimum cost is hardly startling. Theories in a wide variety of disciplines rest on the assumption that "Man is selfish." Psychologists believe that behavior can be shaped by the careful application of reinforcement s. Economists assume that individuals will purchase desired products at the lowest available price. Moral philosophers conclude that the ideal society can only be one which insures the "greatest good for the greatest number." Politicians contend that "Every man has his price." Equity theory, too, rests on the assumption that man is selfish. Thus, our first proposition states: Proposition I: Individuals will try to maximize their outcomes (where outcomes equal rewards minus costs). If everyone were unrestrained in his attempts to get what he wanted, everyone would suffer. Every man would attempt to monopolize community resources; every man would be continually confronted by rivals bent on reclaiming these resources. Only by working out a compromise can the group avoid continual warfare and maximize collective reward. This fact is acknowledged in Proposition II A:

New directions in equity research.

A considerable amount of social science research suggests an individual's initial perception of and reaction to another individual are affected by the physical attractiveness of the other person. T...

The Impact of Physically Attractive Models on Advertising Evaluations

The consumption of aesthetic plastic surgery is examined within the broader context of daily life in an investigation of the motives and the self-concept dynamics underlying this symbolic consumer behavior. Data were collected in multiple, in-depth, ethnographic interviews, and analyzed by a constant comparative method revealing insights into both a priori and emergent themes. A priori themes regarding body image, impression management, symbolic self-completion, and possible selves are developed through a literature review and discussed briefly in light of the findings. Emergent themes, including role transitions, sexual selves and romantic fantasies, control and efficacy, and identity play are developed and embedded in a discussion of identity reconstruction and personal rites of passage. It is concluded that consumption activities are important to both the maintenance and the development of a stable, harmonious self-concept. Directions for future research are discussed.

Selves in Transition: Symbolic Consumption in Personal Rites of Passage and Identity Reconstruction

Physical attractiveness and dating choice: A test of the matching hypothesis☆

Walster, et al. (1966) held a dance at the University of Minnesota at which 752 men and women were randomly paired to form 376 couples. Ss did not know their dates prior to contact at the dance. Although a number of hypotheses were made relating different measures to the desire for future dating, the only correlate with desire to date has been the partner's social desirability, operationally defined in the study as the parrner's rated physical attractiveness. The present smdy is n replication of Walster with several minor changes. The number of Ss, college freshmen and sophomores, is smaller; N = 58. Thus 29 couples, strangers before the dance, were randomly formed with the qualification that the boy be mller than the girl, as in the original scudy. The small N made the dance manageable and conceivably allowed Ss to interact with several other people present. Another measure of social desirability was gathered in addition co physical attractiveness: the parrner's \"sociability\" defined by the question, \"How sociable or outgoing does your date seem?\" Questions also asked about similarity of interests, animdes, religious orientation, values, and intelligence of date. All questions were answered on a 7-point scale. \"lnterescs\" was not an item on the Walster questionnaire. In addition, the question was asked, \"Is there anyone else here at the party who you would like to dare in the fumre. If so, whom?\" The questionnaire was administered to men and women in separate rooms 2 hr. after the dance started. The criterion measure was the question, \"Would you like to go out with your date in the future?\" Ss answered on a 7-point scale ranging from definitely to definitely not. The following Pearsonian correlation coefficients give the relationship between the predictors and \"desire to date\" criterion: physical attractiveness, s = .89; sociable, s = .60; similar interests, r = .64 (df = 56, p < .O1 in all cases). There were no differences between predictor and criterion for men and women. For both sexes the attractiveness-desire to date correlation was .89 (df = 27, p < .01). The question asking who else might be dated yielded 1 4 names, 13 of whom were rated as very attractive ( 6 or 7 on a 7-point scale) by the person's date and by two independent raters who acted as chaperones. Assuming that the names of 7 attractive people would have been obtained by chance, 13 people out of 14 is significant at the .O1 level by a binomial test. N o other correlates of desire to date were found. The findings strongly support the Walscer data, especially the high correlation between attractiveness and desire to date. This correlation also supports the notion that it is very rewarding to be with someone who is physically attractive.

Steven A. Lewis

Papers

Dating and physical attractiveness: Replication.