Sex differences in spatial ability are widely acknowledged, yet considerable dispute surrounds the magnitude, nature, and age of first occurrence of these differences. This article focuses on 3 questions about sex differences in spatial ability: What is the magnitude of sex differences in spatial ability? On which aspects of spatial ability are sex differences found? and When, in the life span, are sex differences in spatial ability first detected? Implications for clarifying the linkage between sex differences in spatial ability and other differences between males and females are discussed. We use meta-analysis, a method for synthesizing empirical studies, to investigate these questions. Results of the meta-analysis suggest that sex differences arise on some types of spatial ability but not others, that large sex differences are found only on measures of mental rotation, that smaller sex differences are found on measures of spatial perception, and that, when sex differences are found, they can be detected across the life span.

Emergence and characterization of sex differences in spatial ability: a meta-analysis.

In recent years, the magnitude, consistency, and stability across time of cognitive sex differences have been questioned. The present study examined these issues in the context of spatial abilities. A meta-analysis of 286 effect sizes from a variety of spatial ability measures was conducted. Effect sizes were partitioned by the specific test used and by a number of variables related to the experimental procedure in order to achieve homogeneity. Results showed that sex differences are significant in several tests but that some intertest differences exist. Partial support was found for the notion that the magnitude of sex differences has decreased in recent years. Finally, it was found that the age of emergence of sex differences depends on the test used. Results are discussed with regard to their implications for the study of sex differences in spatial abilities.

Magnitude of sex differences in spatial abilities: a meta-analysis and consideration of critical variables.

Mental Models of the Earth: A Study of Conceptual Change in Childhood

Many regard gender differences in verbal ability to be one of the well-established findings in psychology. To reassess this belief. Y.'C located 165 studies that reported data on gender differences in verbal ability. The Y.'Cightcd mean effect size (d) was +0.11, indicating a slight female superiority in performance. The difference is so small that we argue that gender differences in verbal ability no longer exist. Analyses of effect sizes for different measures of verbal ability showed almost all to be small in magni tude: for vocabulary. d = 0.02; for analogies, d = 0.16 (slight male superiority in performance): for reading comprehension. d = 0.03: for speech production, d = 0.33 (the largest effect size): for essay writing, d = 0.09; for anagrams, d = 0.22; and for tests of general verbal abil ity, d = 0.20. For the 1985 administration of the Scholastic Aptitude TestVerbal. d = 0.11. indicating superior male performance. Analysis of tests requiring different cognitive processes involved inverbal ability yielded no evidence of substantial gender differences in any aspect of processing. Similarly, an analj,is by age indicated no striking changes in the magnitude of gender differences :ot different ages. countering Maccoby and Jacklin's ( 1974) conclusion that gender differences in verbal ability emerge around age II. For studies published in 1973 or earlier. d = 0.23 and for studies published after !973, a = 0.10, indicating a slight decline in the magnitude of the gender difference in recent years. The implications of these fi ndings are discussed, including their implications for theories of sex differences in brain latcralization and their relation to changing gender roles.

https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED294919.pdf

Gender differences in verbal ability: A meta-analysis.

This study investigated (a) mathematics achievement (Test of Academic Progress) of 589 female and 644 male, predominantly white, 9th-12th grade students enrolled in mathematics courses from four schools, controlling for mathematics background and general ability (Quick Word Test); (b) relationships to mathematics achievement, and to sex-related differences in mathematics achievement, of spatial visualization (Differential Aptitude Test), eight attitudes measured by the Fennema-Sherman Mathematics Attitudes Scales, a measure of Mathematics Activities outside of school, and number of Mathematics Related Courses and Space Related Courses taken. Complex results were obtained. Few sex-related cognitive differences but many attitudinal differences were found. Analyses of variance, covariance, correlation, and principal components analysis techniques were used. The results showed important relationships between socio-cultural factors and sex-related cognitive differences.

Sex-related defferences in mathematics achievement, spatial visualization, and affective factors

This paper presents a review of the research on proportional reasoning. Methodologies used in proportional reasoning studies are presented first. The discussion is then organized around the following topics: strategies use to solve proportion problems, including erroneous strategies; factors that influence performance on proportion problems, both task-related and subject-related; training studies. The discussion is accompanied by suggestions for educational and research applications.

Proportional Reasoning: A Review of the Literature.

The study deals with qualitative features of proportional reasoning on dimensional intensive variables by eleven and thirteen year-old students. These features include types of comparison and types of strategies employed. Four proportional problems, varying in numerical and referential content were administered to 116 eleven year-olds and 137 thirteen year-olds. No significant age effect was found. The relative frequencies with which the type of comparison and various strategies were used was greatly affected by context, numerical content of the problem, and the immediately preceeding task. No type of comparison appeared to be more ‘natural’ than another, as suggested in previous research.

Early adolescents' proportional reasoning on ‘rate’ problems

Children's cosmographies: Understanding the earth's shape and gravity

Piaget's structural theory of formal thought suggests that a general construct of formal reasoning exists. The content of the task and type of problem employed are often ignored in Piagetian based studies but are important for generalizing findings to other studies and to educational problems. The study reported here examines content and problem effects of formal thought in 13-year-old adolescents. Specifically, three controlling variables tasks with different content and two question type tests (analysis and controlling questions) were administered to 120 seventh graders. Ability measures and personality dimensions associated with formal reasoning in the literature are used to clarify what formal reasoning is and how content and problem type are involved in formal reasoning. Significant main effects were found for problem and content effects (p = 0.001), and a significant interaction was found between the two (p = 0.001). Across the three tasks general ability, field dependency, and locus of control were consistently and significantly related to the controlling questions. However, only measures of field dependency were related to the analysis questions. Combinations of ability and personality factors were found to be uniquely related to each task, within each question type. Results have implications for a theory of formal thought and the teaching of the controlling variables strategy.

Steven Pulos

Papers

Proportional Reasoning: A Review of the Literature.

Early adolescents' proportional reasoning on ‘rate’ problems

Children's cosmographies: Understanding the earth's shape and gravity

Correlates of formal reasoning: Content and problem effects

Male-Female Differences in Predicting Displaced Volume: Strategy Usage, Aptitude Relationships, and Experience Influences.