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Applied Multivariate Techniques

Public policy influence on renewable energy investments—A panel data study across OECD countries

Classical multivariate statistical methods concern models, distributions and inference based on the Gaussian distribution. These are the topics in the first textbook for mathematical statisticians by T.W. Anderson that was published in 1958 and that appeared as a slightly expanded 3rd edition in 2003. Matrix theory and notation is used there extensively to efficiently derive properties of the multivariate Gaussian or the Wishart distribution, of principal components, of canonical correlation and discriminant analysis and of the general multivariate linear model in which a Gaussian response vector variable Ya has linear least-squares regression on all components of an explanatory vector variable Yb. In contrast, many methods for analysing sets of observed variables have been developed first within special substantive fields and some or all of the models in a given class were justified in terms of probabilistic and statistical theory much later. Among them are factor analysis, path analysis, structural equation models, and models for which partial-least squares estimation have been proposed. Other multivariate techniques such as cluster analysis and multidimensional scaling have been often used, but the result of such an analysis cannot be formulated as a hypothesis to be tested in a new study and satisfactory theoretical justifications are still lacking. Factor analysis was proposed by psychologist C. Spearman (1904), (1926) and, at the time, thought of as a tool for measuring human intelligence. Such a model has one or several latent variables. These are hidden or unobserved and are to explain the observed correlations among a set of observed variables, called items in that context. The difficult task is to decide how many and which of a possibly large set of items to include into a model. But, given a set of latent variables, a classical factor analysis model specifies for a joint Gaussian distribution mutual independence of the observed variables given the latent variables. This can be recognized to be one special type of a graphical Markov model; see Cox and Wermuth (1996), Edwards (2000), Lauritzen (1996), Whittaker (1990).

Multivariate Statistical Analysis.

This paper examines the impact of public policy measures on renewable energy (RE) investments in electricity-generating capacity made by institutional investors. Using a novel combination of datasets and a longitudinal research design, we investigate the influence of different policy measures in a sample of OECD countries to suggest an effective policy mix which could tackle failures in the market for clean energy. The results call for technology-specific policies which take into account actual market conditions and technology maturity. To improve the conditions for institutional investments, advisable policy instruments include economic and fiscal incentives such as feed-in tariffs (FIT), especially for less mature technologies. Additionally, market-based instruments such as greenhouse gas (GHG) emission trading systems for mature technologies should be included. These policy measures directly impact the risk and return structure of RE projects. Supplementing these with regulatory measures such as codes and standards (e.g. RPS) and long-term strategic planning could further strengthen the context for RE investments.

Public policy influence on renewable energy investments-A panel data study across OECD countries

In recent years, a shift has been observed in several countries towards the exploitation of RES for socio-economic and environmental purposes. Wind energy is a form of renewable energy resources (RES) which offers many advantages, particularly for countries such as Greece, which has a very promising wind potential. In addition, studies of citizens’ views on the development of wind energy in Greece have been gaining particular attention due to recent decisions regarding the energy policy of Greece. More specifically, since August 2012, the examination of new applications for photovoltaic parks has been suspended, and only applications for wind parks are now being reviewed. The present research was conducted on the island of Andros, where a wind park has been in operation since 1992, with a total annual capacity of 4740 MW. The data collection was carried out in 2010 using a structured questionnaire, and involved the citizens as electrical energy consumers. In particular, their views were studied regarding their satisfaction with the quality and availability of electricity on the island, and the installation of wind turbines. They were then asked to evaluate how environmentally–friendly various forms of energy are, as well as the effects from the use of RES. The research results indicate that the citizens are positively disposed towards the installation of wind parks in their area, particularly in the northern part of the island, where a wind park is already installed. After evaluating the various forms of energy, they consider solar, wind and hydroelectric energy to be the most environmentally-friendly energy forms. The use of renewable energy sources will have an impact in reducing carbon dioxide emissions, on the energy supply, lower the relevant costs and contribute to local development with through the creation of new employment opportunities.

Citizens’ views on various forms of energy and their contribution to the environment

Public attitudes towards photovoltaic developments: Case study from Greece

Cycling as a mode of transport is a low-cost, health-improving way to travel and offers environmental benefits for the cities that promote it. It is only recently, though, with concerns over climate change, pollution, congestion, and obesity among others, that have cities throughout the world have begun to implement policies to promote cycling. In Greece, however, the use of the bicycle is limited. In Preveza, a small touristic city in Northwestern Greece where the use of the bicycle is prominent when compared to other Greek cities, there are efforts to promote cycling. Through the aid of a structured questionnaire, the residents evaluated the suitability of the city for cycling, the existing infrastructure, appropriate education, and behavior of cyclists and drivers. More than half of the residents use bicycles as their transportation and stated that bicycles are an inexpensive way of transport in the city and had the opinion that the state should encourage bicycle use by supporting subvention in bicycle acquisition. Two-thirds of the residents evaluated the cycling facilities of their city as adequate, but unsafe for young cyclists who do not follow the rules of transport. Adult cyclists, in contrast, were more loyal to the code, but stated that drivers did not respect their presence on the roads. This research provides important information on the perceived shortcomings of cycling as a transport mode in Preveza that may be of interest to towns/cities with similar characteristics.

https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/10/1/268/pdf

Cycling as a Smart and Green Mode of Transport in Small Touristic Cities

Within the last few decades, the extended use of biodiesel and bioethanol has established interlinkages between energy markets and agricultural commodity markets. The present work examines the bivariate relationships of crude oil–corn and crude oil–soybean futures prices with the assistance of the ARDL cointegration approach. Our findings confirm that crude oil prices affect the prices of agricultural products used in the production of biodiesel, as well as of ethanol, validating the interaction of energy and agricultural commodity markets. The practical value of the present work is that the findings provide policy makers with insight into the interlinkages between agricultural and energy markets to promote biodiesel or bioethanol by affecting crude oil prices. The novelty of the present work stands on the use of futures prices that incorporate all available information and thus are more appropriate to identify supply and demand shocks and price spillovers than real prices. Finally, the period of study includes extremely low, as well as extremely high, crude oil prices and the results illustrate that biofuels cannot be substituted for crude oil and protect economies from energy volatility.

Agricultural commodity and crude oil prices: An empirical investigation of their relationship

Renewable energy sources are called to play an important role as regards the increasing energy demand worldwide. In particular, the need to address the problems created by the oil crises has distinguished the importance of renewable energy in economic development. Biomass is recognized as one of the most important renewable energy sources that can contribute decisively to the energy needs of modern society and the environment protection, in both industrialized and developing countries. A very important source of biomass is wood and especially fuelwood. In Greece, because of the economic crisis, there is an increased consumption of fuelwood, especially in rural areas. In this paper, using a questionnaire and descriptive statistics and logistic regression analysis, we explore the determinants of fuelwood consumption in a rural area, in order to propose appropriate policies for the efficient supply of the market.

Stilianos Tampakis

Papers

Citizens’ views on various forms of energy and their contribution to the environment

Public attitudes towards photovoltaic developments: Case study from Greece

Cycling as a Smart and Green Mode of Transport in Small Touristic Cities

Agricultural commodity and crude oil prices: An empirical investigation of their relationship

The fuelwood consumption in a rural area of Greece