Aim This paper is a description of inductive and deductive content analysis. Background Content analysis is a method that may be used with either qualitative or quantitative data and in an inductive or deductive way. Qualitative content analysis is commonly used in nursing studies but little has been published on the analysis process and many research books generally only provide a short description of this method. Discussion When using content analysis, the aim was to build a model to describe the phenomenon in a conceptual form. Both inductive and deductive analysis processes are represented as three main phases: preparation, organizing and reporting. The preparation phase is similar in both approaches. The concepts are derived from the data in inductive content analysis. Deductive content analysis is used when the structure of analysis is operationalized on the basis of previous knowledge. Conclusion Inductive content analysis is used in cases where there are no previous studies dealing with the phenomenon or when it is fragmented. A deductive approach is useful if the general aim was to test a previous theory in a different situation or to compare categories at different time periods.

/pdf/the-qualitative-content-analysis-process-4mo68rv7vy.pdf

The qualitative content analysis process

There is little published guidance concerning how large a pilot study should be. General guidelines, for example using 10% of the sample required for a full study, may be inadequate for aims such as assessment of the adequacy of instrumentation or providing statistical estimates for a larger study. This article illustrates how confidence intervals constructed around a desired or anticipated value can help determine the sample size needed. Samples ranging in size from 10 to 40 per group are evaluated for their adequacy in providing estimates precise enough to meet a variety of possible aims. General sample size guidelines by type of aim are offered.

/pdf/considerations-in-determining-sample-size-for-pilot-studies-3byfyuwhuy.pdf

Considerations in determining sample size for pilot studies.

Purpose: To explore various types of triangulation strategies and to indicate when different types of triangulation should be used in research.

Methods: Reviews included literature on triangulation and multimethod strategies published since 1960 and research books specifically focusing on triangulation.

Findings: Triangulation is the combination of at least two or more theoretical perspectives, methodological approaches, data sources, investigators, or data analysis methods. The intent of using triangulation is to decrease, negate, or counterbalance the deficiency of a single strategy, thereby increasing the ability to interpret the findings.

Conclusions: The use of triangulation strategies does not strengthen a flawed study. Researchers should use triangulation if it can contribute to understanding the phenomenon; however, they must be able to articulate why the strategy is being used and how it might enhance the study.

https://www.utas.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/165208/the-point-of-triangulation.pdf

The point of triangulation.

ed summaries and general concepts can be formulated, which may, upon further investigation, be found to be germane to a wider variety of settings. Case studies, therefore are not necessarily restricted

/pdf/qualitative-research-methods-in-health-technology-assessment-1ma11mg407.pdf

Qualitative research methods in health technology assessment: a review of the literature.

Aims The aims of this paper were (1) to raise awareness of the issues in questionnaire development and subsequent psychometric evaluation, and (2) to provide strategies to enable nurse researchers to design and develop their own measure and evaluate the quality of existing nursing measures. Background The number of questionnaires developed by nurses has increased in recent years. While the rigour applied to the questionnaire development process may be improving, we know that nurses are still not generally adept at the psychometric evaluation of new measures. This paper explores the process by which a reliable and valid questionnaire can be developed. Methods We critically evaluate the theoretical and methodological issues associated with questionnaire design and development and present a series of heuristic decision-making strategies at each stage of such development. The range of available scales is presented and we discuss strategies to enable item generation and development. The importance of stating a priori the number of factors expected in a prototypic measure is emphasized. Issues of reliability and validity are explored using item analysis and exploratory factor analysis and illustrated using examples from recent nursing research literature. Conclusion Questionnaire design and development must be supported by a logical, systematic and structured approach. To aid this process we present a framework that supports this and suggest strategies to demonstrate the reliability and validity of the new and developing measure. Relevance to clinical practice In developing the evidence base of nursing practice using this method of data collection, it is vital that questionnaire design incorporates preplanned methods to establish reliability and validity. Failure to develop a questionnaire sufficiently may lead to difficulty interpreting results, and this may impact upon clinical or educational practice. This paper presents a critical evaluation of the questionnaire design and development process and demonstrates good practice at each stage of this process.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1365-2702.2006.01573.x

Essential elements of questionnaire design and development.

Unit I: Introduction to Nursing Research. Discovery of the World of Nursing Research. The Evolution of Research in Nursing. Introduction to Quantitative Research. Introduction to Qualitative Research. Unit II: The Research Process. Research Problem and Purpose. Review of Relevant Literature. Frameworks. Objectives, Questions and Hypotheses. Ethics in Research. Understanding Research Design. Selecting a Research Design. Sampling. The Concepts of Measurement. Measurement Strategies in Nursing. Data Collection and Management. Concepts of Statistical Theory. Descriptive and Exploratory Analyses. Bivariate Inferential Data Analyses. Advanced Statistical Analyses. Qualitative Research Methodology. Outcomes Research. Interpreting Research Outcomes. Communicating Research Findings. Unit III: Strategies for Using Research in Practice. Critical Analysis of Nursing Studies. Utilization of Research in Nursing Practice. Unit IV: Seeking Support for Research Activities. Proposal Writing for Research Approval. Seeking Funding for Research.

Suan K .Grove

Papers

The Practice of Nursing Research: Conduct, Critique, & Utilization