Background: Social networking sites (SNSs) have become a pervasive part of modern culture, which may also affect mental health. Objective: The aim of this systematic review was to identify and summarize research examining depression and anxiety in the context of SNSs. It also aimed to identify studies that complement the assessment of mental illness with measures of well-being and examine moderators and mediators that add to the complexity of this environment. Methods: A multidatabase search was performed. Papers published between January 2005 and June 2016 relevant to mental illness (depression and anxiety only) were extracted and reviewed. Results: Positive interactions, social support, and social connectedness on SNSs were consistently related to lower levels of depression and anxiety, whereas negative interaction and social comparisons on SNSs were related to higher levels of depression and anxiety. SNS use related to less loneliness and greater self-esteem and life satisfaction. Findings were mixed for frequency of SNS use and number of SNS friends. Different patterns in the way individuals with depression and individuals with social anxiety engage with SNSs are beginning to emerge. Conclusions: The systematic review revealed many mixed findings between depression, anxiety, and SNS use. Methodology has predominantly focused on self-report cross-sectional approaches; future research will benefit from leveraging real-time SNS data over time. The evidence suggests that SNS use correlates with mental illness and well-being; however, whether this effect is beneficial or detrimental depends at least partly on the quality of social factors in the SNS environment. Understanding these relationships will lead to better utilization of SNSs in their potential to positively influence mental health. [JMIR Ment Health 2016;3(4):e50]

Social Networking Sites, Depression, and Anxiety: A Systematic Review

Facebook use is very popular among young people, but many open issues remain regarding the individual traits that are antecedents of different behaviours enacted online. This study aimed to investigate whether the relationship between self-esteem and the amount of time on Facebook could be mediated by a tendency towards social comparison. Moreover, three different modalities of Facebook use were distinguished, i.e., social interaction, simulation, and search for relations. Because of gender differences in technology use and social comparison, the mediation models were tested separately for males and females. Data were collected by means of a self-report questionnaire with a sample of 250 undergraduate and graduate Italian students (mean age: 22.18 years). The relations were examined empirically by means of four structural equation models. The results revealed the role of orientation to social comparison in mediating the relations between low self-esteem and some indicators of Facebook use, i.e., daily hours on Facebook and the use of Facebook for simulation. For females, the use of Facebook for social interaction was directly influenced by high self-esteem and indirectly influenced by low self-esteem. Globally, the dimension of social comparison on Facebook emerged as more important for females than for males.

https://www.psycharchives.org/bitstream/20.500.12034/1704/1/ejop.v14i4.1592.pdf

Self-Esteem, Social Comparison, and Facebook Use.

The escalation of social networking site (SNS) usage has led to much research examining both the positive and negative implications SNS can have on well-being. However, whilst many studies have investigated the relationship between SNS usage and body image, there remains a paucity of research in regards to SNS usage and Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD). A systematic search was undertaken using Web of Science, PsychInfo and PubMed databases to identify SNS usage and patterns, SNS features and mediating factors contributing towards body image dissatisfaction, resulting in 40 studies meeting specific inclusion criteria. Findings identified passive SNS use and appearance-focused SNS use as particularly influential. Appearance-based comparisons were also found to be a strong mediator between SNS use and body image dissatisfaction. Using the current knowledge, parallels were highlighted in terms of body image dissatisfaction and BDD symptomatology, suggesting frequent SNS usage as a potential risk factor in the development of BDD symptoms.

/pdf/the-use-of-social-networking-sites-body-image-1hbtzd9vpc.pdf

The use of social networking sites, body image dissatisfaction, and body dysmorphic disorder: A systematic review of psychological research.

A gender difference in color preference among British participants has been repeatedly reported, in which both males and females show a preference for blue-green colors, while females express an additional preference for pink-purple colors6,10,12. To investigate the robustness of gender difference in color preference in a different culture, we tested 81 young adult Indians from a school of Design and compared them to 80 young British students in Psychology. A 35-item International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) and the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) questionnaires were also administered to explore possible links between personality traits, gender schemata and color preferences. 
Results confirmed a gender difference in both cultures; participants collectively expressed a preference for cool over warm colors, while in addition females showed a preference for pink colors, with a warm bias for Indian females and a cool bias for British females. While these results extend gender difference to Indian culture and support the universality of an underlying pattern they also reveal a culture-specific contribution essentially observed in females. In British participants, color preference was correlated exclusively with BSRI scores in females and overwhelmingly with IPIP scores in males; this gender-specific pattern of correlation was not replicated in the Indian sample. Results point to an archetypal pattern of gender difference in color preference with a remarkable cross-cultural similarity in men and a subtle but significant cultural difference in women whose origin is yet to be explained.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/col.22188

Gender difference in color preference across cultures: An archetypal pattern modulated by a female cultural stereotype

Demographic and psychosocial variables associated with good and bad perceptions of social media use

Facebook is an online social networking service launched in February 2004. It was founded by Mark Zuckerberg with his college roommates and fellow Harvard University students. Facebook is designed to foster social interaction in a virtual environment. It allows a user to create profile, display personal information, upload pictures, access other users' profiles, accumulate online friends, and interact with those friends through messages, or other applications (Kalpidou, Costin & Morris, 2011). Facebook is the number one social networking site as of May 2011 with 157.2 million visitors per month (Lipsman, 2011). India has the largest number of facebook users (over 60 million) in Asia and it ranks 3rd among the top 50 countries on facebook ("India Facebook Statistics", 2013). However, so far very negligible study has been done on the Indian population regarding facebook use.According to the Internet and Mobile Association of India (IAMAI) and Indian Market Research Bureau (IMRB), out of 80 million active Internet users in Urban India, 72% (58 million individuals) have accessed some form of social networking (Press Trust of India, 2013). However, it is interesting to note that the rest 27% have chosen not to join a social networking site (including facebook). While some of this lack of adoption may result from lack of access to Internet or lack of skills associated with using these services, differences between adopters and non-adopters may also be explained by differences in individual characteristics and motivations.Two contradictory views co-exist with respect to how individuals' social/interpersonal characteristics relate to Internet communication, including social networking site use: complementary (RICH-GET-RICHER OR SOCIAL ENHANCEMENT HYPOTHESIS) versus compensatory (POOR-GET-RICHER OR SOCIAL COMPENSATION HYPOTHESIS). On one hand, some researchers (such as Correa, Hinsley & de Zuniga, 2010; Lee, 2009; Wilson, Fornasier & White, 2010) predicted and found that more socially active individuals, such as extraverts, would be more inclined to utilize social networking sites as an additional means to expand their social network even further. On the other hand, others (such as Kalpidou et al., 2011; Orr et al., 2009) hypothesized that those more socially inept (such as introverts, socially anxious, shy, or individuals with low self-esteem) and thus less satisfied with their current relationships would be more strongly motivated to compensate for the deficiency by turning to social networking site as an alternative to face-to-face interaction.Existing literature shows "personality" to be the most studied variable with respect to facebook use. It was found to be a major predictor of facebook use (Amichai-Hamburger & Vinitzky, 2010; Ryan X Seidman, 2013; Skues, Williams & Wise, 2012; Wilson et al., 2010). Ryan and Xenos (2011) suggested that gratifications of facebook users may differ as a function of their individual personality characteristics. As a result, they recommended comparison of personality of facebook users and non-users, to obtain a more accurate representation of the type of people that facebook appeals to (or does not appeal to).Previous researches revealed that just like real life communication, facebook communication is also influenced by attachment style, social interaction anxiety and self-esteem. However, researches are few (especially on attachment style and facebook) and limited to facebook users only. Attachment style developed in childhood is an important factor influencing adult interpersonal relationships and social interactions. Thus, it is expected that securely and insecurely attached adults will differ in their preference for the real and the virtual world. Keeping in view the two hypotheses (Complementary versus Compensatory) and the findings of the study by Rao and Madan (2013) chances are equally likely that facebook users may be either those who are securely attached or those who are insecurely attached. …

Psychological Predictors of Facebook Use

The study explored the relation of marital quality with gender role stereotype. A cohort of 350 couples aged 30–50 years were assessed for marital quality, gender role identity and gender role attitude. Results revealed a preference for traditional pattern, as masculinity for men and femininity for women were associated with better marital quality. Modern gender role attitude was significantly associated with marital quality in case of non-working women, but not with other categories. The results have been discussed in the context of cultural notions of gender.

Marital Quality and Gender Role Stereotype

Variants of the Indian Gender Role Identity Scale (IGRIS) for different age groups in Bengali population

The issue of weight-control has become especially urgent in recent years because of galloping levels of obesity in the population. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 300 million people worldwide are obese and a further 750 million are overweight including 25 million children under age of five years (Arnst, 2004). This global epidemic of obesity stems from a combination of genetic susceptibility, increasing availability of high fat and high energy foods and low levels of physical activity or exercise (Kopelman, 2000), along with sedentary living pattern (Bouchard, 2002).The relationship between weight-gain and physical activity or exercise is controversial. It is evident that lack of exercise leads to overweight and obesity. It is also true that weight stigma present in the overweight and obese person leads to decreased participation in weight management efforts resulting from exercise-avoidance motivation (Bauer, Yang, & Austin, 2004; Hayden-Wade, Stein, Ghaderi, Saclens, Zabinski, & Wifley, 2005). From earlier literature, it can be said that obesity-exercise relationship is a vicious-cycle, where it is difficult to identify the predictor. Studies also reveal that there are other important predictors of regular exercise such as self-image, attitude towards exercise, gender, motivation, overweight, social support, health status, self-efficacy, depression and family exercise habit (Dishman, 1982; Molt, Dishman, Saunders, Dowda, Felton & Word, 2002; Salmon, Owen, Crewford, Bauman, & Sallis, 2003). Certain factors are also associated with overweight and obesity in adults such as childhood obesity, family history, socio-economic status, culture, value, diet, stress, anxiety, depression etc. (Bouchard, 2002; Koretz, 2003; Oliver, Wardle, & Gibson, 2000 Wardle, Wollder, & Jarvis, 2002).For the present study, it is assumed that gender role identity and exercise avoidance motivation of the individual might vary in terms of Gender, Body Mass Index (BMI) and Exercise Habit. Gender difference is important in exercise behavior. Females are found to have lower exercise scores than males (Saklofske, Austin, Rohr & Andrews, 2007) eventually leading to obesity. The Body Mass Index (BMI) of an individual determines whether a person is normal, overweight or obese in terms of his/her height-weight ratio. According to the Body Mass Index Table (National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, 2004):a) BMI for normal persons ranges from 19 to 24.b) BMI for overweight person ranges from 25 to 29.c) BMI for obese person ranges from 30 to 39.The typical exercise participation for a normal adult is to accumulate 30 minutes or more moderate intensity activity on most, preferably all days of the week and 20 minutes or more vigorous activity at least three days a week (Centre for Advancement of Health, 2000). In this study regular exercise is meant by at least 45 minutes of moderate intensity daily exercise. The no exercise group participants are involved only in normal day-to-day light physical activities at home and work place.The present study intends to assess the role of gender role identity, exercise avoidance motivation in normal, overweight and obese persons participating in regular exercise programs and persons with no regular exercise habit. The concepts of the variables are stated in the following:Gender Role Identity: This refers to one's perception of oneself as psychologically male or female. It develops on the basis of gender specific norms of a specific society and societal expectations about a particular gender. Men are expected to be strong, masculine, adventurous, athletic while women are expected to be domestic, feminine, quiet, tender submissive, etc. Accordingly men and women of a particular society acquire a gender identity. According to Bem (1974, 1984), both males and females can have their share of masculine and feminine traits. Earlier literature reveals that people who perceive them as athletic are more likely to get involved in exercise programmes (Salmon et al. …

Subrata Dasgupta

Papers

Psychological Predictors of Facebook Use

Marital Quality and Gender Role Stereotype

Variants of the Indian Gender Role Identity Scale (IGRIS) for different age groups in Bengali population

Obesity and exercise in relation to gender role identity and exercise avoidance motivation in adults

Role of Cross-Cultural Marriage of Parents on Personality Dimensions of Secondary School Students of Kolkata