Lincoln, Yvonna, and Egon Guba, "Postpositivism and the Naturalist Paradigm," pp. 14-46 in Yvonna Lincoln and Egon Guba, Naturalistic Inquiry . Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1985.*

Running head: WHY MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION DOES NOT WORK Why Minimal Guidance during Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching

Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide "internal" guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.

/pdf/why-minimal-guidance-during-instruction-does-not-work-an-3q3gc2rbj6.pdf

Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching

This article reports on an effort to explore the differences between two approaches to intuition and expertise that are often viewed as conflicting: heuristics and biases (HB) and naturalistic decision making (NDM). Starting from the obvious fact that professional intuition is sometimes marvelous and sometimes flawed, the authors attempt to map the boundary conditions that separate true intuitive skill from overconfident and biased impressions. They conclude that evaluating the likely quality of an intuitive judgment requires an assessment of the predictability of the environment in which the judgment is made and of the individual's opportunity to learn the regularities of that environment. Subjective experience is not a reliable indicator of judgment accuracy.

https://fiddlemath.net/stuff/conditions-for-intuitive-expertise.pdf

Conditions for intuitive expertise: A failure to disagree.

▪ Abstract This chapter reviews the training research literature reported over the past decade. We describe the progress in five areas of research including training theory, training needs analysis, antecedent training conditions, training methods and strategies, and posttraining conditions. Our review suggests that advancements have been made that help us understand better the design and delivery of training in organizations, with respect to theory development as well as the quality and quantity of empirical research. We have new tools for analyzing requisite knowledge and skills, and for evaluating training. We know more about factors that influence training effectiveness and transfer of training. Finally, we challenge researchers to find better ways to translate the results of training research into practice.

The Science of Training: A Decade of Progress

Cognitive task analysis is defined as the extension of traditional task analysis techniques to yield information about the knowledge, thought processes and goal structures that underlie observable task performance. Cognitive task analyses are conducted for a wide variety of purposes, including the design of computer systems to support human work, the development of training, and the development of tests to certify competence. As part of its Programme of Work, NATO Research Study Group 27 on Cognitive Task Analysis has undertaken the task of reviewing existing cognitive task analysis techniques. The Group concludes that few integrated methods exist, that little attention is being paid to the conditions under which methods are appropriate, and that often it is unclear how the products of cognitive task analysis should be used. RSG.27 has also organized a workshop with experts in the field of cognitive task analysis. The most important issues that were discussed during the workshop were: (1) the use of CTA in the design of new systems, (2) the question when to use what technique, and (3) the role of CTA in system design. RSG.27 emphasizes: (1) that is important for the CTA community to be able to empirically demonstrate the added value of a CTA; (2) it is critical for the success of CTA to be involved in the design process from the start to finish, and to establish clear links with methods that are used by other disciplines, and (3) recommends that more research effort be directed to the issue of the reliability of CTA techniques. (P)

Cognitive task analysis

Modern work, with its increasing reliance on automation to support human 
action, is focusing attention on the cognitive aspects of work that are not 
accessible to direct observation. For example, it is obvious that the physical 
acts of button pushing that occur in the command center of a modern ship 
are of less intrinsic importance than the mental decision processes executed 
via those actions. The mental processes organize and give meaning to 
the observable physical actions. Attempts to analyze a task like air traffic 
control with traditional behavioral task analysis techniques made the 
shortcomings of those techniques strikingly clear (Means, 1993). Starting 
in the 1960s, the cognitive revolution in academic psychology has both 
increased our awareness of the extensive cognitive activity underlying even 
apparently simple tasks and provided research techniques and theories for 
characterizing covert cognition. Hence, the term cognitive task analysis is 
coming into use to describe a new branch of applied psychology. The relative 
newness of this enterprise is evidenced by the fact that, as of this writing, 
a search of the entire Psyc INFO database with the term yielded only 28 
items, some irrelevant, and a search in the Science Citation Index yielded 
30 items. The high current interest in cognitive task analysis is evidenced by 
recent literature review efforts undertaken by a British aerospace company 
(confidential) and by the French military (Doireau, Grau, & Poisson, 1996) 
as well as the NATO Study Group effort reported here.

Susan F. Chipman

Papers

Cognitive task analysis

Introduction to Cognitive Task Analysis

Bootstrapping Multiple Converging Cognitive Task Analysis Techniques for System Design

State-of-the-art review of cognitive task analysis techniques

Theoretical and pragmatic influences on task analysis methods