This paper presents an interpretive summary of the progress that has been made in the study of motivation, especially as this work relates to the area of education. Motivation research has “come of age” with theoretical frameworks rooted in an established body of findings, and with the development of core methodologies for pursuing further knowledge. It has begun to provide a firm base for guiding educational practice. Current work is clearly in accord with mainstream psychology in that cognitive models of motivation are the predominant guides for research. Future work is likely to focus increasingly on how the meaning construction process affects engagement in tasks. Researchers should consider a wider array of research procedures and give greater attention to understanding motivation as it occurs in natural settings, especially as educational interventions are attempted. A serious deficiency in the motivation literature is that relatively little attention has been given to differences related to sociocultural backgrounds.

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Understanding Motivation and Schooling: Where We've Been, Where We Are, and Where We Need to Go

An observational study investigated the effects of gender of teacher, gender of student, and classroom subject (mathematics vs. English literature/language) on teacher–student interactions. A total of 597 high school students (294 males and 303 females) and 36 teachers (28 males and 8 females) were observed in either 18 mathematics classes or 18 literature/language classes. Students and teachers were predominately Caucasian, with the majority of students from a lower- or middle-class background. Observations were coded using the interactions for sex equity in classroom teaching (INTERSECT) observational instrument. It was found that female mathematics teachers, male literature/language teachers, and female literature/language teachers tended to interact somewhat more with male students than with female students. This tendency was not the result of male students having initiated more direct verbal interactions with teachers.

Classroom interactions: Gender of teacher, gender of student, and classroom subject

This meta-analysis examines patterns of sex differences in teacher-initiated teacher–student interactions. While extensive research has examined factors that influence student evaluations of effective and ineffective teachers, this study examines whether teacher-initiated interactions with students, such as praising or blaming, vary as a function of student sex. After a careful examination of 127 empirical studies, 32 studies were retained for the meta-analysis. The studies were coded for positive, negative, and total interactions. The results suggest that teachers initiate more overall interactions and more negative interactions, but not more positive interactions, with male students than with female students.

A Meta-Analytic Perspective on Sex Equity in the Classroom

We studied 14 fifth- and sixth-grade students' challenge seeking during project-based mathematics instruction in 1 classroom. We drew on 5 areas of research: academic risk taking, achievement goals, self-efficacy, volition, and affect. Data included students' responses to a tolerance for failure survey, an adaptive learning pattern survey, and 3 individual interviews about their actions during a math project. Qualitative and quantitative analyses suggested 2 patterns of student self-perceptions and behaviors: "challenge seekers" and "challenge avoiders." Challenge seekers self-reported a tolerance for failure, a learning goal orientation, and a higher than average self-efficacy in math. Challenge avoiders self-reported a higher negative affect after failure, a more performance-focused goal orientation, a lower self-efficacy in math, and a greater use of surface strategies (i.e., strategies requiring minimal processing of information). We illustrate the consistency of these patterns and reveal the diversit...

Challenge in a mathematics classroom: Students' motivation and strategies in project-based learning.

The role of coeducation versus separate-sex schooling in the academic, socioemotional, interpersonal, and career development of adolescents is discussed. Arguments and research support for both types of schooling are reviewed. Separate-sex schooling seems to provide potential academic and attitudinal benefits for at least some students. The limitations of current research are discussed, and directions for further research are offered.

Single-Sex and Coeducational Schooling: Relationships to Socioemotional and Academic Development

Girls and boys are still far from equal in U.S. elementary and secondary schools. Research on teacher-to-student and student-to-student classroom interaction patterns, reviews of curricular materials, and data on participation in extracurricular activities suggest that the school climate is less encouraging for girls and young women than it is for their male classmates. Even testing and assessment procedures give an inaccurate picture of girls' abilities and thereby limit their options. This article reviews current research and makes specific recommendations for actions to create a more gender equitable environment in the nation's schools.

Susan McGee Bailey

Papers

The Current Status of Gender Equity Research in American Schools