In many cities in developing countries, particularly in South East Asia, motorcycles play a critical role in urban transport system. The characteristics of the motorcycle make it well adapted to the urban form of many cities and hence, it is sufficient for meeting socio-economic needs of the citizens. Motorcycles offer flexible and door-to-door transport, which has been considered much more advantageous over other transport modes. During the last decade, the number of motorcycles has been significantly increasing in cities such as Taipei (Taiwan), Jakarta (Indonesia), Bangkok and Chiang Mai (Thailand), Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City (Vietnam). Besides, due to increased income, citizens are leaning toward safer and more convenient modes of transport. Private cars are becoming preferable modes to those who can afford it. The use of individual transport modes is contributing to urban sprawl and challenging the development of new public transport system. This results in threats to urban health, safety, quality of life, economic growth, and especially the sustainability of the local and global ecology (Faiz, 1993; Nadis and MacKenzie, 1993). Considering the unsustainable development process of those cities, the concept of integrated transport and urban development – an approach that considers and connects transport system and urban form development – is promoted as a long-term solution. 
Over the years, there have been many studies related to traffic management and urban planning in developing cities in Asia. The study of Barter (1999) addressed the urban transport and land-use situation of Surabaya (Indonesia) and Ho Chi Minh City (Vietnam). Khuat (2006) studied traffic management for cities dominated by motorcycles. Both Barter and Khuat generalised characteristics of cities having high degrees of motorcycle use and the associated problems. However, in both studies, as well as in other relevant studies, the interactions of transport system and urban form elements were not adequately addressed.
This study aims to understand the basic interactions of transport system and urban form elements in Asian developing cities. Going beyond the scope of past research, this study is not limited to infrastructure development. Instead, it includes the interactions of transport infrastructure development as well as operational traffic management measures (e.g. parking management and road pricing) with urban development. Based on the interactions, problems emerging due to the lack of coordination between transport and urban development are analysed. Then, a framework for integrated transport and urban development is established. To realise the concept of integrated development, strategies are developed. Finally, an example of a local case study illustrates the application of the developed strategies in practice, including impact estimation. 
This study uses a literature review to identify the interactions between transport system and urban form elements and the problems of uncoordinated transport and urban development in Asian developing cities. Besides, data from a field survey in Ho Chi Minh City are used to illustrate the problems. The case study approach is employed to argue and pre-select candidate measures, which could potentially form strategies for integrated transport and urban development in Asian developing cities. Expert consultation is conducted to prioritise the measures, using multi-criteria assessment.
The study expects to contribute to the academic field with a detailed description of the interactions between transport system and urban form elements for the specific case of Asian developing cities. The practical contribution includes an analysis of problems, the establishment of the framework for integrated transport and urban development in Asian developing cities, the development of strategies and the proposal for the application. Those contributions can be useful for researchers and policy makers in Asian developing cities to develop policies for their city towards an integrated transport and urban development.

Strategies for Integrated Transport and Urban Development in Asian Developing Countries

Roadside parking makes a large contribution to local revenue if managed properly. However, in its implementation, there have been many practices of "illegal parking" which have made the management very bad and caused losses to the parking users. Thus, government collaboration in parking management is important to involve all relevant stakeholders involved as a whole, forming cooperation, both in consensus and in decision making. This study focuses on-street parking management strategy from a collaborative governance perspective. This study used a descriptive qualitative method with the research location in the city of Semarang. Data collection was carried out through in-depth interviews with related agencies, apart from observing and documenting. From observations in the field, the researchers found that the Semarang City Government has not performed its function optimally as the main pillar in determining policies related to parking management. For this reason, a management strategy with a government collaboration concept approach that involves several stakeholders is needed to solve the parking problem collectively. With the concept of collaborative governance, it will reduce irregularities and monopolies in the implementation of parking management.

https://www.bircu-journal.com/index.php/birci/article/download/1992/pdf

Road Edge Parking Management Strategy in Semarang City: Collaborative Governance Perspective

Parking or facilities serving people's parking needs play a very important role in the planning and development of the road transport system, which have an important influence on the sustainable urban development objective of Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC). However, after many different efforts and solutions, the problem of solving parking demand in HCMC area has not been completely solved, the reason comes from many objective factors and especially vacant land fund for the infrastructure is very limited. Understanding the reasons leading to the failure of the applied solutions, the study focused on the proposal, synthesizing parking models with small and medium scale, with appropriate technical specifications. These technical specifications are proposed, based on the needs and characteristics of HCMC. Moreover, gathering a database of possible parking solutions is an important prerequisite for the City Government as well as the research units to continue the next research in order to create a comprehensive solution that could help solving the problem of people’s parking needs of HCMC.

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Research on Multi-Level Parking Solutions in Ho Chi Minh City

There is a growing requirement for sustainable management of urban assets with the help of insights and trends into parking utilisation. Also, there is a need for faster discovery of available parking spaces through parking utilisation prediction, thereby reducing the environmental impact in cities. This paper presents models for on-street and off-street contextual parking utilisation prediction, using weather data and point-of-interest data as contextual data. CatBoost and Random Forest as machine learning (ML) methods are used for contextual parking utilisation prediction, and data analysis showed that models with contextual data achieved better results for both types of parking lots. In both cases, on-street and off-street parking, the best model is based on CatBoost and point-of-interest data, achieving R2 92.84% in the case of on-street parking and 97.04% for off-street parking. Models with weather data performed lower than models with point-of-interests, where the difference between the models is 4.01% for on-street parking and 0.69% for off-street parking. The paper's overall conclusion is that ML models with contextual data are performing better than models without contextual data, and point-of-interest context provides better performance than weather data for both on-street and off-street parking.

Contextual Prediction of On-Street and Off-Street Parking Lot Utilisation: An Opening Gate Towards Sustainable Parking

Rapid motorisation with high motorcycle volume is a unique traffic situation in Asian developing countries. The travel behaviour in these countries is dominated by motorcycle-traffic-culture in which the convenience of this transport mode is exploited. With the ability to enter small alleys and to serve door-to-door mobility, motorcycles are excellent in accessibility. They are also relatively small in size, offering manoeuvring flexibility and freedom to park practically nearly anywhere.
At user level, such a motorcycle-dominated culture has resulted in a number of parking issues in Asian developing countries. Transport users are having a unique travel behaviour regarding parking duration, parking searching time and walking distance. The number of private vehicles has been increased while the available space on the roads has remained unchanged, leaving a huge gap between parking supply and demand. Illegal parking occurs frequently in many urban areas, especially central business districts.
At city level, rapid motorisation and its uncertain future growth rate are making the planning for parking a challenge. The parking policy has not only poorly aligned with transport policy but also rarely been a particular focus of policies of urban systems. Furthermore, parking spaces have attracted higher opportunity cost due to increased land price in densely-populated urban areas.
Given the current problematic parking situation in Asian developing countries, parking management is of critical significance and must be addressed. Appropriate parking planning could positively influence destination choice, modal choice, the volume of car traffic, traffic flow quality, and even land-use and urban structure. Proper parking management might significantly contribute to the sustainability of urban transport development.
This study aims to develop parking management strategies for urban areas in Asian developing cities to control motorisation and promote public transport, walking and cycling.
Firstly, the study investigates the parking situation and policies in urban areas of developing countries with a higher focus placed on eight selected Asian cities. Eight principles of parking management are then proposed: 1) Parking policy should align with the overall transport management policy and the urban development policy to ensure the liveability of the cities; 2) Parking policy should be made specific for individual urban zones due to their dissimilar characteristics; 3) Mutual effects of parking policies in neighbouring zones should be considered by implementing an area-wide parking management; 4) Parking demand should be analysed for specific user groups; 5) Qualified demand, which should be satisfied by the parking supply, should be distinguished from the general parking demand; 6) Different parking regulations should be used to prioritise specific user demand groups; 7) The amount of parking supply should be controlled to ensure that not any parts of the supply remain unregulated; and 8) Illegal parking should be avoided by physical measures and strict enforcement of parking regulations.
Secondly, parking planning methodologies are investigated and compared to recommend a method to efficiently analyse parking supply and demand. Data collection in parking studies in Asian developing cities has been a major challenge due to the local rapid motorisation. Two-step planning at macro and micro level is recommended in this study to overcome this challenge. At macro level, the parking analysis mostly utilises the O-D traffic data within city zones to estimate type and volume of transport mode and required parking spaces. In many Asian cities, data on attraction and modal split of many urban zones are yearly collected. The data can be re-utilised for long period of time. At micro level, the parking analysis helps to verify the planning by analysing parking demand, behaviour and characteristics at typical streets and land use types. The case of Hanoi, focusing on parking supply and demand and parking user‘s behaviour, is further studied.
Thirdly, potential parking management measures are defined, followed by a thorough discussion on their advantages and disadvantages in the local context. It is argued that a localised parking supply enhancement measure is needed. The concept of para-parking or the legalisation of illegal parking is developed, covering the requirements of different stakeholder groups, detailed parking regulations, strict enforcement of parking, and a parking pricing scheme. Para-parking is positioned as a significant measure which could potentially enhance the sustainable mobility in urban areas of developing cities. It particularly benefits transport planners in the sense that parking resources can be reasonably shared and efficiently utilised and that unplanned land use is controlled. Furthermore, para-parking also helps develop new parking businesses in urban areas while establishing reasonable pricing schemes and effective regulations.
Finally, zone-based parking management strategies are recommended to facilitate the reduction of automobile dependency and promote environment-friendly public transport and non-motorised transport.
In summary, the application of two-step parking planning method, para-parking concept, and zone-based parking management strategies in Asian developing cities would be useful for transport planners and authorities. Those actions facilitate sustainable mobility for all user groups, which has been seen as one of the most important factors for urban development and a vital goal of traffic management.

Thanh Truong Thi My

Papers

Parking Management Strategies for Asian Developing Countries