This article presents the findings of the study conducted in Zambia and Norway on the teaching of literacy in the first grades. The aim of the study was to broadly reflect on the language of instruction and initial literacy situation in three grade one multilingual classrooms in both Zambia and Norway, and possibly highlight on the similarities and differences in the teaching of literacy between the two countries. Apart from reflecting on pedagogical and the general implementation in the classroom, other salient features and themes surrounding the topic were also highlighted. This was a qualitative study as data was collected through face to face interviews with two school managers (one from Zambia and one from Norway) from the two selected schools in the two countries. Four grade 1 classroom ( two in Zambia and two in Norway) observations were also conducted. The data collected was analyzed thematically and the findings revealed that there were several similarities and differences between the two countries. Among the noted ones were that both countries are multilingual with the language policy that demand the use of local languages as media of instruction as well as languages of initial literacy. The only difference was that for Norway, Norwegian is used as language of instruction at all levels (grades 1-13) in all public schools, including the University level, while for Zambia a local language is used as medium of instruction from Grade 1 to Grade 4. The other feature was that in both countries some parents supported the language policy whereas, others wanted their children’s mother tongue to be used as both language of instruction and language of initial literacy. In addition, teachers in both countries taught constrained finite skills such as alphabetic letters, letter-sound relationships and how one sound blended with others to form syllables, and slow learners were taken care of by receiving remedial work. 
	Another similarity was that there were talking walls and teaching and learning materials in both countries although for Zambia, serious inadequacy of teaching and learning materials was noted. On the issue of helping children from different language backgrounds other than Cinyanja, results showed that there was no specific policy in Zambia that explained how teachers should be helping pupils in schools that were not speakers of language used to teach initial literacy, while Norway has a sounding policy of helping the minority speaking pupils without sufficient language skills in Norwegian. In both countries there was mutual collaboration between the schools and the community. Finally, the paper commended the working collaboration that exist between the two countries, and recommended for continuity and support from both parties in aspects of good pedagogical practices. Zambia should also emulate Norway in formulating inclusive language policies that do not disadvantage the minority languages in terms of teaching initial literacy.

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Teaching of literacy in first grades in Zambia and Norway: exploring some similarities and differences

The Namibia Language Policy stipulates that in the junior primary (Pre-Primary, Grades 1-3), the language of instruction is the mother tongue or the predominant local language. However, Zambezi Region of Namibia is multilingual yet SiLozi is the sole language of initial literacy based on the assumption that it is the predominant language. A number of studies argue that a monolingual language practice creates challenges for both the teacher and learners in heterogeneous classrooms. In view of the preceding, the purpose of the study was to establish the challenges the pre-primary teachers and learner were confronted with due to SiLozi as a sole language of initial literacy in selected pre-primary classrooms in a predominantly SiFwe speaking environment of Sibbinda Circuit of the Zambezi Region. The sample consisted of 6 pre-primary classrooms, 6 pre-primary teachers, 6 principals. The findings of the study bring out the numerous challenges which teachers and children face in providing/receiving instruction exclusively in SiLozi. One of the challenges includes lack of familiarity with the official medium of instruction which itself, has a number of pedagogical implications. As a way to bridge the language gap, the study recommends translanguaging as a pedagogical practice whose implementation and practice would engender multilingualism, counteract symbolic violence and ensure epistemic access and facilitate initial literacy development. Finally, teachers require skills of resemiotisation, semiotic remediation and multilingual pedagogical practices to cope with the challenges they face in their multilingual classrooms.

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The Use of Silozi as Language of Initial Literacy Instruction in Multilingual Pre-Primary Classrooms of Zambezi Region: Challenges and Way Forward

English language is a compulsory subject in Zambia from grades five to grade twelve. Therefore, it is vital that learners are equipped with the necessary skills to improve their communicative competence. The purpose of this study was to establish teachers’ understanding and application of the Text-based Integrated Approach in the teaching of English language to Grade Eleven pupils in selected secondary schools of Luanshya District in Zambia. The study employed a mixed method design which incorporates both qualitative and quantitative research designs. Interview guide, lesson observation guide and the questionnaire were the data collection instruments used in the study. A sample of 54 respondents comprising 45 teachers of English language and nine Heads of Language Departments participated in the study. The data were analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively and were merged into common themes according to the research objectives. The findings showed that despite teachers affirming that they understood and applied the Text-based Integrated Approach in their teaching during face to face interviews, quantitative findings revealed that only 59% of the participants understood the approach, 28% held misconceptions about the approach and 13% bluntly stated that they did not have a slight idea about the method. Further, through the teachers’ responses in the questionnaire and the interviews, teachers had limited knowledge about what approaches the syllabus recommended for the teaching of English language at senior secondary school level. Classroom lesson observations data showed that teachers were not implementing the Text-based Integrated Approach as stipulated in the syllabus. In view of the findings, it is recommended that the Ministry of General Education should organize formal and comprehensive in-service training for teachers on how to apply the Text-based Integrated Approach.

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How do Teachers Understand and Apply the Text Based Integrated Approach in Secondary School Classrooms

This paper examines the extent of the mismatch between familiar language and language of instruction among pupils and its effect on reading comprehension in selected primary schools in Lusaka district of Zambia. The study sampled 240 Grade 5 pupils from three (3) government primary schools between the ages nine (9) to 13years. Results of the dependent (paired) sample t-tests indicated that there were significant differences in performance between listening comprehension in Cinyanja and Listening comprehension in English results. Equally, a MANOVA test indicated statistically significant differences in pupils’ performance in English language than those based on the home language. The results also suggest that some pupils in primary schools are not benefiting from using Cinyanja as a language of instruction as it contradicts with their home language. Therefore, the study recommended, among other things, the need to simplify the class language of instruction to children’s home and language of play and to train teachers in specific Zambian languages.

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Mismatch between familiar language and language of instruction among pupils: effect on reading comprehension in selected primary schools in lusaka district, zambia

The world witnesses a rapid change as a result of the technological revolution thatshapes people's daily lives This new lifestyle demands from 21st-century students new skills such as communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and computer skills However, it is noticeable that literate people in Lebanon lack these skills which hinder their success at the professional and social levels In this way, functional literacy is needed to help the literate to read, write, do calculations, and solve technical problems in the social and professional context Therefore, this research conducted descriptive research on 100 EFL literate in the Beqaa using a questionnaire and a poll to test functional literacy level and to determine the challenges that prevent adult literates to act as functional literate in the 21st-century The results affirmed that nearly half of EFL adult literates in the Beqaa district can act as functional literates, but the majority of them are at the intermediate level The results also revealed that they need more improvements regarding developing English skills, technological skills, and numeracy skills Thus, it is recommended to design training courses that develop functional adult literacy skills by presenting them in a procedure that depends on promoting communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and computer skills so that that the adult learners can substitute the gaps they missed in their educational systems and contribute in the sustainable development of the society

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The Challenges of Functional Adult Literacy: A Descriptive Study on EFL Learners in Beqaa District

This study sought to establish the conceptual understanding of functional literacy by selected residents of Lusaka and how they thought it was applied in the society. The study was guided by four research questions (a) what was the understanding of functional literacy by residents of Lusaka? (b) what role did functional literacy play in a society and how did it improve people’s lives? (c) how was functional literacy applied according to residents of Lusaka? and (d) what were the challenges faced by functionally illiterate people according to respondents? This was a qualitative mode of inquiry under post positivism research paradigm. The specific research design used was phenomenological with the constructivist theory. Data was collected through face to face interviews with residents of Lusaka that were randomly selected. Data was analyzed thematically by grouping related information under certain themes. The study revealed that functional literacy is the application of reading and writing skills in people’s daily lives such as reading cell phone messages, social media chats, receipts, writing plans, notes, budgets, books, messages on social media and others. Other respondents indicated that it was the ability to translate theory or skills into practice. It was further noted that, functional literacy helped people to be self-sustaining, in return, contributing to social, political and economic development of the country. It was further reported that people that were functionally illiterate had limited access to written information and were prone to certain risks such as eating expired foods. The study recommended that the government and non-governmental organisations should sensitise the people of Lusaka on the concept of functional literacy.

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Theresa Mwawa

Papers

Understanding the Concept of Functional Literacy by Selected Residents of Lusaka District of Zambia