Emerging blockchain technology is a promising platform for implementing smart contracts. But there is a large class of applications, where blockchain is inadequate due to performance, scalability, and consistency requirements, and also due to language expressiveness and cost issues that are hard to solve. In this paper we explain that in some situations a centralised approach that does not rely on blockchain is a better alternative due to its simplicity, scalability, and performance. We suggest that in applications where decentralisation and transparency are essential, developers can advantageously combine the two approaches into hybrid solutions where some operations are enforced by enforcers deployed on–blockchains and the rest by enforcers deployed on trusted third parties.

On and Off-Blockchain Enforcement Of SmartContracts

The utilisation of blockchain has moved beyond digital currency to other fields such as health, the Internet of Things, and education. In this paper, we present a systematic mapping study to collect and analyse relevant research on blockchain technology related to the higher education field. The paper concentrates on two main themes. First, it examines state of the art in blockchain-based applications that have been developed for educational purposes. Second, it summarises the challenges and research gaps that need to be addressed in future studies.

Blockchain-Based Applications in Higher Education: A Systematic Mapping Study

The primary purpose of this paper is to provide a design of a blockchain-based system, which produces a verifiable record of achievements Such a system has a wide range of potential benefits for students, employers and higher education institutions A verifiable record of achievements enables students to present academic accomplishments to employers, within a trusted framework Furthermore, the availability of such a record system would enable students to review their learning throughout their career, giving them a platform on which to plan for their future accomplishments, both individually and with support from other parties (for example, academic advisors, supervisors, or potential employers) The proposed system will help students in universities to increase their extra-curricular activities and improve non-academic skills Moreover, the system will facilitate communication between industry, students, and universities for employment purposes and simplify the search for the most appropriate potential employees for the job

Blockchain-Based Trusted Achievement Record System Design

Smart contracts can be implemented using either centralized or decentralized (blockchain) platforms. However, for a large class of applications, neither of these two alternatives on its own can provide adequate scalability, performance, quality of service, security, and trust requirements. We argue that for many applications, hybrid solutions that combine both on and off‐blockchain components are more adequate. In this article, we introduce the design and implementation of a novel hybrid smart contract architecture built using the Ethereum blockchain connected to a centralized smart contract management system developed by us. We then compare and evaluate the implementation of an asset tracking service using three different architectures: on‐chain, off‐chain, and hybrid. We demonstrate that using a hybrid architecture, we can substantially improve performance of applications while retaining security and trust for critical tasks.

Todd Wike

Papers

Implementation and evaluation of smart contracts using a hybrid on‐ and off‐blockchain architecture