IntroductionEver since the publication of the seminal book that birthed the term "glass ceiling" (Morrison, White, & Van Velsor, 1992), that memorable metaphor for the invisible barrier that impedes the senior management advancement of talented women professionals inside corporations has seemingly become ubiquitous in management literature, business school curricula, and the global psyche. As evidence, by December 2010 the Amazon.com database had 242 books with "glass ceiling" in the title and 337 books that include the keyword phrase "glass ceiling." Scholarly journals also help to disseminate information about the glass ceiling phenomenon by reporting numerous studies that confirm its existence inside large firms (e.g., Daily, Certo, & Dalton, 1999; Helfat, Harris, & Wolfson, 2006; Jordan, Clark, & Waldron, 2007). Today, multiple business courses including organizational behavior, ethics, and business law might be considered incomplete without highlighted mention and discussion of the glass ceiling phenomenon.While teaching about the glass ceiling has greatly broadened awareness of this genderbased inequity in the corporate workplace, the disappointing truth is that the phenomenon continues to influence behavior among corporate leaders. Several scholars suggest frustrated women executives often choose to leave the corporate world in order to escape the effects of the glass ceiling by forming their own small firms (e.g., Mattis, 2004; Orhan & Scott, 2001; Winn, 2004). The underlying hypothesis is that the glass ceiling - a phenomenon that by definition is specific to large firms - cannot prevent women business owners from serving as chief executive of their own firm and realizing the rewards they deserve.However, evidence is growing that the strategy of leaving the corporate world in order to escape gender bias often fails (Patterson & Mavin, 2009). This is because women business owners typically encounter other forms of systemic gender bias that constrain their performance. Specifically, based on gender, women business owners face a disadvantage in raising capital (Aldrich, Elam, & Reese, 1997; Bellucci, Borisov, & Zazzaro, 2010; Brush, 1997; Carter & Rosa, 1998; Carter, Shaw, Lam & Wilson, 2007; Coleman & Robb, 2009; Marlow, 2002; Muravyev, Talavera, & Schafer, 2009). We refer to this phenomenon as the second glass ceiling. The second glass ceiling sounds like an entrepreneurship corollary to the first glass ceiling concept, but instead of centering on the corporate advancement ladder it centers on the capital markets that serve small firms. The second glass ceiling prevents women-owned small firms from reaching their full entrepreneurial potential. We suggest the cost of this second glass ceiling is born by the entire economy.The body of scholarly literature on this phenomenon we call the second glass ceiling is growing. In building our evidence for the existence of the second glass ceiling, we cite recent empirical studies (e.g., Bellucci, Borisov, & Zazzaro, 2010; Muravyev, Talavera, & Schafer, 2009) and new descriptive data on the state of women-owned businesses (e.g., American Express, 201 1 ). Clearly, owning and running a small firm is not the same thing as starting an entrepreneurial venture. The current evidence of the second glass ceiling, however, suggests the phenomenon affects both types of business person. Therefore, we switch between use of the terms "entrepreneur", "small business owner", and the more general "woman business owner" to reflect the term(s) used by the studies we cite. Unfortunately, evidence of this phenomenon has not yet made its way into the consciousness of financial capital managers and the female entrepreneurs (nascent and current) who hold the keys to mitigating the deleterious effects of the second glass ceiling. The purpose of this paper is to (1) raise awareness of the second glass ceiling and its costs to society, (2) describe its causes and effects, and (3) propose ways that both women entrepreneurs and financial capital managers can crack this ceiling. …

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The Second Glass Ceiling Impedes Women Entrepreneurs

This article presents a brief diversity audit of three major U.S. corporations, who share some interesting common traits. The attractive diversity delineations posted on these company's Web sites will be reviewed, followed by their issues with the same topic in the past few decades. This threefold audit is followed by two important observations about U.S. and non-U.S. companies, based on company diversity audits applied over the course of 5 years by more than 150 management university students. The author claims that a large number of major corporations in the United States are going out of their way to post diversity statements on their Web sites and to collect diversity-based awards from numerous minority-promoting organizations, but they overlook one small aspect: walking their talk. Theoretical and practical implications for HRD professionals are included.

Colorful window dressing: A critical review on workplace diversity in three major American corporations

Against a backdrop of public sector cuts, increasing university fees and high youth unemployment, we are facing challenges in Higher Education to demonstrate the value of our courses Assessing the value of learning, however, is not straight forward This paper reports on a study of evaluation processes on a post-graduate, professionally accredited diploma delivered at a selection of post 1992 universities The driver for the study was a concern that current evaluation processes do not fully demonstrate the value of the course nor take into account the needs of multiple stakeholders The project included benchmarking University evaluation processes and conducting a dialogue with stakeholders The study adopted a qualitative management research approach, involving: a review of current practice, comparison with a sample of equivalent courses, and consultation (in the form of focus groups and semi-structured interviews) with a sample of students and employers The paper discusses findings and proposes recommendations for future evaluation procedures in the design of an ‘educational scorecard’ for the course Kaplan and Norton’s ‘balanced scorecard (1996) concept was adapted to provide a mechanism to represent and balance the needs of different stakeholder groups in the education process We argue that we cannot truly assess accountability and comparability without engaging a range of stakeholders, not only in soliciting their views on the outcome of the learning but also in the design and implementation of evaluation processes The ‘educational scorecard’ presented in this paper is developed specifically for the post-graduate diploma in Human Resource Management (PDHRM) at Leeds Metropolitan University and the report concludes with some initial reflections on the benefits of adopting the scorecard methodology The proposed model is flexible and may be adapted for other HE institutions and courses

The Educational Scorecard: The Start of our Journey

Satisfaction with Education

The massive growth of information communication technologies (ICTs) has revolutionized students’ learning in higher education through the advancement of educational technologies. Technologies such as hypermedia learning systems have become widespread and offer significant contributions to improving the delivery of learning and teaching materials. One attribute of hypermedia in facilitating learning is the way it parallels how the human brain and memory works, particularly the way information is encoded and retrieved (Jonassen, 1988; 1991). The effectiveness of hypermedia systems as learning tools has been confirmed by numerous researchers (e.g. Buchanan, 2000; Ford & Chen, 2001; Fullerton, 2000; Guthrie, 2010; Lee & Boling, 2008; Thomas & McKay, 2010) who demonstrated their compatibility with cognitive processes due to variations in the way students perceive, understand and learn from complex information sources. In other words, a key factor in the development of hypermedia learning systems is their dependency on students’ cognitive style since they relate to users’ information processing habits and the representation of individual users’ typical modes of perceiving, thinking, remembering and problem solving. Specifically, Witkin, Moore, Goodenough, and Cox’s (1977) classification - field dependent and independent learners - is adapted in this study to identify the key factors that affect students’ cognitive style in educational environments supported by hypermedia systems.

Nevertheless, with the continuous development of hypermedia learning systems, there is still much to explore and learn about students’ cognitive styles and their effect on learning from cross-disciplinary perspectives. Hence, this thesis aims to answer two broad questions: (i) What are the factors that affect cognitive style? (ii) Does cognitive style change over time? To address these questions, four groups of factors were explored and tested in two locations (Australia and Malaysia) and over two time periods (Semester 1 and Semester 2, 2008): (i) student demographics; (ii) learning dimensions (nonlinear learning, learner control, multiple tools); (iii) culture dimensions (power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism/collectivism, masculinity/femininity, long/short term orientation); and (iv) evaluation of units (content delivery). 

The methodological design was a case study using a survey instrument. The study was conducted over two semesters in Australian and Malaysian universities. Both statistical and descriptive analyses were used to enrich the interpretive process of the complex dimensions and increase the relevance of the findings. The statistical analyses consisted of sample size determination, hypotheses testing and application of advanced statistical modelling methods (multiple linear regressions, tree-based regressions and linear mixed effects models) to extract the maximum information from the data. The results indicate that unit evaluation, which included questions related to students’ perceived satisfaction with the delivery of the unit material, was the primary variable to determine students’ cognitive style. The other variables determining cognitive style, to a lesser extent, were learning dimensions (particularly nonlinear learning and learner control) and culture (particularly power distance, long term orientation and individualism). It was found that neither demographics nor time affects cognitive style. 

The outcomes of this study have important practical implications for educators and institutions. It is recommended that unit evaluations should be conducted at both the beginning and the end of each semester. By administering a survey that asks students about their preferred delivery of material at the beginning of the semester, their cognitive style could be identified. The results would therefore be valuable information for tutors and lecturers who could adjust their delivery style accordingly. The students’ responses at the end of the semester would provide valuable feedback to tutors and lecturers. This research drew on the perspectives of education, information systems, cognitive psychology and culture. The study incorporated multiple factors with detailed case studies and used extensive quantitative analyses to ensure the validity and reliability of the research findings. The findings in this study will contribute to the ongoing research cognitive style and hypermedia learning systems.

Cognitive style and hypermedia learning: A multi-perspective study

The growth of online education in U.S. business schools brings with it the role that course evaluations play in curricula improvements. This study reports business students' perceptions of course evaluations and their corresponding importance to the institution. The results revealed that students feel that administrators use course evaluations to make required course changes. This was tested with a single sample t-test with a test value of 3, which demonstrated that the mean was statistically significant at a p ********** The rapid growth of distance education is a rising tide in American higher education and is changing the landscape of how instruction is delivered in and out of the classroom. The Sloan Consortium reported that 3.18 million students took online courses in fall of 2005, a 35% increase over the previous year (Allen & Seaman, 2006, p. 5). These numbers are driving important questions and concerns for academics who seek to maintain the quality of instruction on-campus and online. What are the needs and expectations of non-traditional students who take courses online? What is the most effective mode of delivery to meet these expectations? Are there qualitative differences between on-campus and online academic experiences? Is there a student evaluation bias against online courses compared to face-to-face courses? The following is a review of related literature that speaks to these questions. It is not exhaustive, as the complete literature pertaining to adult non-traditional learners is vast and growing and there are additional questions to be researched. It is, however, a representation of concerns that academics have as they contemplate how to provide high quality instruction to on campus and online students. The origin of student evaluations of teaching can be traced back to the work of Purdue University psychologist Herman Returners. In the 1920s, he and his colleagues pioneered the use of rating scales for evaluating institutions (Coladarci & Kornfield, 2007). The value of evaluations to faculty, administration and students both in-class and online is clearly documented by considerable research and is not the subject of this study. Indeed, "researchers have conducted over 2,000 studies in student evaluations of teaching (SET) during the past seventy years" (Loveland, 2007, p. 1). The purpose of this study is to explore a largely neglected but extremely important aspect of student evaluations; namely, the perceptions of students regarding the value of course evaluations. Further, this study explores the differences in perceptions between traditional and non-traditional students regarding their experiences with online and in-class evaluations of faculty. There is little doubt that there are marked differences between traditional and non-traditional students. Non-traditional students report difficulty in integrating into student life and other campus activities (Graham & Donaldson, 1999; Rautopuro & Vaisanen, 2001). It is also reported that non-traditional students have a strong sense of commitment to the goal of obtaining a university degree (Bradley & Cleveland-Innes, 1992) and have greater academic facility than their younger counterparts (Cleveland-Innes, 1994; Rautopuro & Vaisanen, 2001). In addition, it has been suggested that non-traditional, adult students have slightly higher levels of academic and intellectual ability than younger students (Graham & Donaldson, 1999). Non-traditional students have been found to have certain expectations that distinguish them from traditional students and play a role in how they perceive their academic experiences and the quality of instruction they receive. …

Business Students' Perceptions of Course Evaluations

Executive Summary This paper will focus on the legal, labor, and employment implications of the Dukes v. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. decision. We will also examine what opportunities Wal-Mart management has before it to reshape its employment policies such as more objective hiring practices along with making Wal-Mart senior management accountable for Affirmative Action goals. Introduction On February 6, 2007, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit upheld the district court's prior ruling to certify a class of female plaintiffs alleging that Wal-Mart discriminated against them on the basis of their gender in violation of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Pregerson, 2007). Close observers of the Dukes v. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc.case understand that a monumental, and perhaps historic, event was taking place before their eyes. The purpose of this paper is to address the significance of this case with respect to the impact on women's productivity and labor issues in terms of career advancement and to provide management advice to Wal-Mart executives. First, one must consider the importance of class certification to the parties. A class action certification "is one of the most devastating employment-related events that can happen to an employer" (Haase & Sullivan, 2006, p. 153). As these researchers explain, the employer now faces potential liability, significant legal costs to defend the suit, and the need to counter evidence that would likely have been inadmissible if the plaintiffs had to proceed on an individual basis against the employer. Certification of the class action indicates the court has ruled that this suit may proceed as a class action allowing the six named plaintiffs to represent the entire class. The Dukes case is additionally significant as it is the largest discrimination class certification in federal court history, involving an estimated 1.6 million potential plaintiffs (Hart, 2007). The class consists of "[a]ll women employed at any Wal-Mart domestic retail store at any time since December 16, 1998, who have been or may be subjected to Wal-Mart's challenged pay and management track promotions policies and practices" (Pregerson, 2007, p. 1340). Wal-Mart is the nation's largest private employer and as such sets the culture within the retail industry, if not the entire employment arena (Hart, 2007). This researcher argues that because of Wal-Mart's involvement, this case has "transformative potential" (p. 356). The potential arises from the ability of the Dukes case to push boundaries and address the continuing pervasive issue of gender discrimination (Hart, 2007). One must also consider the legal impact of the case on future class action claims of discrimination. Some (Haase & Sullivan, 2006) argue that minimal legal impact has occurred from the Dukes decision. They base this conclusion on analytical reviews of court decisions regarding the certification of class actions against employers. Haase and Sullivan (2006) concluded that Dukes "has not marked a turning point in the legal treatment of subjective decisions in employment" (p. 155). As their analysis found, a majority of courts denied class certification prior to Dukes. (see Reid v. Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Co.; Abram v. United Parcel Service of America, Inc.) Following the Dukes decision, the breakdown in class certifications appears to remain the same with a majority of courts continuing to deny class action certification (Haase & Sullivan, 2006). While the legal trend or impact is a factor to consider, the important issue for businesses to take into account from the Dukes case is that no private employer has ever faced a class action of this size, and the public is engaging in a new dialogue regarding workplace discrimination. Regardless of the legal impact on future court decisions, Dukes serves as a reminder to employers of the risk and exposure involved when sued, the importance of reviewing their current employment policies and developing policies that limit subjectivity, and assessing how to reduce the risk of being sued (Haase & Sullivan, 2006). …

Tomas H. Parks

Papers

Business Students' Perceptions of Course Evaluations

Wal-Mart and Women: Good Business Practice or Gamesmanship?