萨义德以其独特的双重身份,对西方中心权力话语做了分析,通过对文学作品、演讲演说等文本的解读,将O rie n ta lis m——"东方学",做了三重释义:一门学科、一种思维方式和一种权力话语系统,对东方学权力话语做了系统的批判,同时将东方学放入空间维度对东方学文本做了细致的解读。

萨义德的“Orientalism”释义

Acknowledgements 1. The World in English Introduction: from Hurt Waldheim to Johnny Clegg The natural, neutral and beneficial spread of English The social, cultural and political contexts of English The worldliness of English Conclusion 2. Discourse and Dependency in a Shifting World Introduction: rethinking internationalism Development, aid and modernization Dependency and imperialism Culture, discourse, difference and disjuncture Criket, English and cultural politics 3. English and Colonialism: Origins of a Discourse Introduction: the complexities of colonialism Anglicism and Orientalism: two sides of the colonial coin English for the few: colonial education policies in Malaya Anglicism and English studies Conclusion 4. Spreading the Word/Disciplining the Language Introduction: anti-nomadic disciplines The disciplining of linguistics The disciplining of applied linguistics The spreading and disciplining of discourse of EIL 5. ELT From Development Aid to Global Commodity From cultural propaganda to global business: The British Council 'The West is better...': discourses of ELT English Language Teaching practices as cultural practices Conclusion: the compass of discourse 6. The Worldliness of English in Malaysia Contexts Cultural politics after independence Malay nationalism and English English, class and ethnicity English adn Islam English and the media The debates continue 7. The Worldliness of English in Singapore English as a useful language The making of Singapore Singapore English Pragmatism, multiracialism and meritocratism Pragmatic, multiracial and meritocratic English Conclusion 8. Writing Back: The Appropriation of English Postcolonial English Re-presenting postcolonial worlds Worldy texts in a worldly language Decentered voices: writing in Malaysia Centered voices: writing in Singapore From aestheticism to yuppyism: the new writing in Singapore From writing back to teaching back 9. Towards a Critical Pedagogy for Teaching English as a Worldly Language Critical pedagogies Discourse, language and subjectivity Insurgent knowledges, the classroom and the world References Index

http://www.tnewfields.info/Articles/PDF/reviewPennycook.pdf

The cultural politics of English as an international language

The author, who is concerned with the methodological implications of critical theory, explores issues in the developing area of emancipatory research. She defines the concept of "research as praxis...

Research as Praxis

In this paper, I attempt to reconceptualize validity within the context of openly ideological research.~ The usefulness of this reconceptualization is tested by applying it to examples from three explicitly value-based research programs: feminist research, neo-Marxist critical ethnography, and Freirian "empowering" research. 2 Finally, validity issues within research committed to a more equitable social order are discussed.

Issues of Validity in Openly Ideological Research: Between a Rock and a Soft Place.

In this article, I attempt to deal with some of the complexities of text, ownership, memorization, and plagiarism. Arguing that plagiarism cannot be cast as a simple black-and-white issue, the prevention of which can be achieved via threats, warnings, and admonitions, I suggest that it needs to be understood in terms of complex relationships between text, memory, and learning. This is part of an attempt to explore more generally different relationships between learning, literacy, and cultural difference. I look first at the background to the notion of authorship and ownership of text, arguing that the way ownership and creativity are understood within European and U.S. contexts needs to be seen as a very particular cultural and historical development. By looking at shifting premodern, modern, and postmodern understandings of text and authorship, I show how the dominant modernist paradigm has always been filled with tensions and ambiguities. Then I discuss how these confusions around plagiarism lead to difficulties and hypocrisies in how textual borrowing is understood. I follow this examination of the development of the Western notion of textual ownership with a consideration of what it means to impose this view in a context where understandings of texts, ownership, and learning may be very different. By looking at learning in a Chinese context and also at the particularities of studying in Hong Kong, I show why we need much more subtle appreciations of the relationships between different approaches to texts. Finally, I discuss some general implications for understanding text, ownership, and learning.

Borrowing Others' Words: Text, Ownership, Memory, and Plagiarism

In this essay I consider recent perspectives in educational research and in particular the use of critical ethnography in the study of comparative education. Since the term is relatively new, some introduction will first be given to other approaches, their origins, and their relationship to critical approaches in the field. The parameters of several approaches and their implications for the study of comparative education will be discussed, and suggestions will be made throughout for research applications of these approaches in comparative education. "Critical ethnography" refers to studies which use a basically anthropological, qualitative, participant-observer methodology but which rely for their theoretical formulation on a body of theory deriving from critical sociology and philosophy. 1 The theoretical forebears in this area date back to Marx, with his critique of bourgeois theories of society, and the positivist sociology of Comte.2 The fundamental criticism of positivist social science embodied in Marx's approach was that the distinction between the objective and subjective could not bring together the "is" and the "ought" in a way that made possible the construction of a theory of ethics and politics.3 These questions come down to us today in modern guise when we consider problems in educational research, but their basic core remains the same: Is it the task of social scientists to seek ever more diligently to define objective methods of researching the social world (or education), with possibilities for change seen as simply the result of "reading out the data" and making choices on the basis of some cost-efficient or technological rationale? Or is it their task to attempt to understand as accurately as possible the subjective understandings that actors have of their own version of "social reality"? Or, third, is there some way of seeing social science in Marx's terms that would forever blur the objective/subjective distinction and thus make necessary the redefinition of social research itself? These questions lie at the heart of any discussion of research methodology

Critical Ethnography in the Study of Comparative Education.

Two topics that were emphasized in the 1990 Comparative and International Education Society (CIES) annual meeting were "educational reform in international perspective" and "global and international education." Members of CIES conceive of their mandate in a dualistic manner; the first topic is one of scholarly or theoretical interest, and the second is one of practical or pragmatic interest. Two forms of producers and consumers of these topics are also identified: researchers and academics on the one hand and practitioners or "school-based" personnel on the other. In this essay, I examine a subject that is relevant to the interests of both sides. Perhaps the discussion will demonstrate that the division between the two is a false one, or at least one that has been created by our conception of knowledge itself, by our culturally created conception of ways of knowing, or epistemology. The subject of this essay is how our conceptions of ways of knowing have limited and restricted the very definition of comparative education that we have taught students and used in our own research and, indeed, have promulgated to practitioners. Additionally our conceptions have created a false dichotomy between theory and practice and a communication gap between academics and practitioners. Moreover, they have led to willful ignoring or bypassing of large areas of teaching and learning that are not considered in the domain of valid knowledge, such as indigenous systems of religious or medical knowledge, or new forms of self-education in areas considered to be "fringe" forms of knowledge.' My first awareness of this subject arose 15 years ago when I assigned Harry Wolcott's ethnography "The Man in the Principal's Office" to a third-year undergraduate class in anthropology and education. In this work, he discusses the relationship of school practice to academic research, from the teachers' or principals' perspective. He says they did not read

Ways of Knowing: Implications for Comparative Education.

Common Interests, Uncommon Goals: The Histories of the World Council of Comparative Education Societies and its Members

RESUMEL'article de Vandra Masemann examine divers aspects de l'education»extra-curriculaire» dispensee dans un pensionnat feminin d'Afrique de l'Ouest. Ce pensionnat, situe en milieu urbain du Ghana, recrute ses eleves parmi les groupes ethniques A kan et Ga-A dangme, qui resident principalement en ville et occupent un statut socio-economique eleve. L'auteur montre qu'en plus d'apprendre le contenu formel des programmes, les eleves sont soumises a une variete d'experiences informelles qui les socialisent a de nouveaux roles relies a l'education occidentale. Ces roles sont ceux d'epouse d'un homme instruit, capable de bien tenir maison, et d'employee de bureau. Les aspects de la vie scolaire porteurs de ces lecons informelles sont l'organisation des cours de sciences domestiques, la disposition des lieux, le rythme de la vie scolaire, la hierarchie et la division du travail parmi le personnel de l'ecole, enfin le modele que constitue pour ces jeunes filles le professeur feminin.

The 'Hidden Curriculum' of a West African Girls' Boarding School

THE MAIN FOCUS of this paper is a discussion of the utility of anthropological approaches to the study of comparative education. This is not by any means intended as a full-scale review of the state of the field, but as a discussion of certain aspects of the anthropological perspective which have value for the understanding of processes in education obscured in other kinds of studies, or perhaps not even acknowledged to be worthy of study. Throughout the paper an attempt will be made to underscore the relevance of such a perspective for the study of what educators tend to label "educational problems." The four areas to be discussed in detail, with appropriate reference to other work and to some of my own previous research, are as follows. Firstly, I will consider the area of cross-cultural studies of education and socialization in the broadest sense. Secondly, the comparative study of schools as institutions within a particular socio-cultural context will be discussed, with particular reference to education of minority groups, both indigenous and immigrant (in North America). Thirdly, the area of school ethnography will be examined, with a consideration of its possible future uses both crossculturally and within one society. Lastly will be considered the utility of anthropological theory and methodology in studies which are carried out within a basically sociological framework, and the fruitfulness of an interdisciplinary approach in very large scale research studies.!

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/1187486.pdf

Vandra L. Masemann

Papers

Critical Ethnography in the Study of Comparative Education.

Ways of Knowing: Implications for Comparative Education.

Common Interests, Uncommon Goals: The Histories of the World Council of Comparative Education Societies and its Members

The 'Hidden Curriculum' of a West African Girls' Boarding School

Anthropological Approaches to Comparative Education