This study, which is a part of the initiative 'Lifting The Burden: The Global Campaign to Reduce the Burden of Headache Worldwide', assesses and presents all existing evidence of the world prevalence and burden of headache disorders. Population-based studies applying International Headache Society criteria for migraine and tension-type headache, and also studies on headache in general and 'chronic daily headache', have been included. Globally, the percentages of the adult population with an active headache disorder are 46% for headache in general, 11% for migraine, 42% for tension-type headache and 3% for chronic daily headache. Our calculations indicate that the disability attributable to tension-type headache is larger worldwide than that due to migraine. On the World Health Organization's ranking of causes of disability, this would bring headache disorders into the 10 most disabling conditions for the two genders, and into the five most disabling for women.

https://www.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1468-2982.2007.01288.x

The Global Burden of Headache: A Documentation of Headache Prevalence and Disability Worldwide:

on to develop full blown Parkinson's disease with rigidity and bradykinesia in the next few years. For those interested in the mechanisms of tremor, there are the customary authoritative reviews by Llinas, De Long, Lamarre, Rothwell and Deuschl, but uncertainty remains with respect to the relative importance of central autonomous generators and instability of peripheral reflex loops. Well written chapters are also included on primary orthostatic tremor and its relationship to essential tremor, writing tremor, neuropathic tremor, midbrain tremor and the increasingly acknowledged psychogenic tremors. Complex interrelationship between dystonia and postural tremor is also covered in depth. This cornucopia will be coveted and dipped into by those neurologists with a special interest in abnormal movement disorders, but who would not consider themselves to have a research interest in tremor. However, for the majority of clinicians involved in the hurly burly of clinical practice, I suspect that regrettably time and cost factors will conspire together to keep this excellent book out of reach. ANDREW LEES

https://jnnp.bmj.com/content/jnnp/59/3/346.1.full.pdf

Contributions to Neuropsychological Assessment

We review lesion and neuroimaging evidence on the role of the hippocampus, and other structures, in retention and retrieval of recent and remote memories. We examine episodic, semantic and spatial memory, and show that important distinctions exist among different types of these memories and the structures that mediate them. We argue that retention and retrieval of detailed, vivid autobiographical memories depend on the hippocampal system no matter how long ago they were acquired. Semantic memories, on the other hand, benefit from hippocampal contribution for some time before they can be retrieved independently of the hippocampus. Even semantic memories, however, can have episodic elements associated with them that continue to depend on the hippocampus. Likewise, we distinguish between experientially detailed spatial memories (akin to episodic memory) and more schematic memories (akin to semantic memory) that are sufficient for navigation but not for re-experiencing the environment in which they were acquired. Like their episodic and semantic counterparts, the former type of spatial memory is dependent on the hippocampus no matter how long ago it was acquired, whereas the latter can survive independently of the hippocampus and is represented in extra-hippocampal structures. In short, the evidence reviewed suggests strongly that the function of the hippocampus (and possibly that of related limbic structures) is to help encode, retain, and retrieve experiences , no matter how long ago the events comprising the experience occurred, and no matter whether the memories are episodic or spatial. We conclude that the evidence favours a multiple trace theory (MTT) of memory over two other models: (1) traditional consolidation models which posit that the hippocampus is a time-limited memory structure for all forms of memory; and (2) versions of cognitive map theory which posit that the hippocampus is needed for representing all forms of allocentric space in memory.

/pdf/functional-neuroanatomy-of-remote-episodic-semantic-and-4vdkhu9m8q.pdf

Functional neuroanatomy of remote episodic, semantic and spatial memory: a unified account based on multiple trace theory

Over the last century, several dozen case reports have presented 'topographically disoriented' patients who, in some cases, appear to have selectively lost their ability to find their way within large-scale, locomotor environments. A review is offered here that has as its aim the creation of a taxonomy that accurately reflects the behavioural impairments and neuroanatomical findings of this literature. This effort is guided by an appreciation of the models of normative way-finding offered by environmental psychology and recent neuroscience research. It is proposed that several varieties of topographical disorientation exist, resulting from damage to distinct neuroanatomical areas. The particular pattern of impairments that patients evidence is argued to be consonant with the known functions of these cortical regions and with recent neuroimaging results. The conflicting claims of previous reviews of this area are also considered and addressed.

/pdf/topographical-disorientation-a-synthesis-and-taxonomy-4o3rvdj563.pdf

Topographical disorientation: a synthesis and taxonomy

http://www.yorku.ca/shaynar/Backups/Oct%2028%202008/PUBLICATION_PDFS/Moscovitch_remote.pdf

The cognitive neuroscience of remote episodic, semantic and spatial memory.

We assessed the prevalence of migraine headaches in an epidemiological survey of an 11 to 14-year-old student population. Migraine headaches were classified on the basis of questionnaires and neurological examination using the operational diagnostic criteria of the International Headache Society. Prevalence of migraine without aura (IHS code 1.1) was 2.35%; that of migraine with aura (IHS code 1.2) was 0.62%. Migraine without aura was equally distributed among males and females, whereas migraine with aura was preponderant in the female cohort. The prevalence of migraine headaches in males was constant through the ages studied, whereas the prevalence of migraine headaches in females reached a peak at age 12 and plateaued over the following two years. Although the new IHS classification criteria of migraines are reliable and exhaustive, some subcriteria may not be valid in a juvenile population. For instance, the duration of the pain in young migraineurs is often briefer than in adults, and the intensity of pain was almost always described as moderate or severe. Therefore, in order to increase the reliability and comprehensiveness of the IHS classification, minor modifications should be made.

Migraine headaches in adolescents : a student population-based study in Monreale

Transient topographical amnesia and cingulate cortex damage: a case report.

The operational and diagnostic criteria for migraine and all other headache disorders released in 1988 by the International Headache Society are universally considered reliable and exhaustive. These criteria, however, cannot be considered as satisfactory for population-based studies on migraine prevalence, especially if adolescents are the subjects of the study.



Using these diagnostic criteria, we conducted an epidemiological study in order to assess the prevalence of migraine headache in a student population aged 11 to 14 years. Our survey made it possible to code IHS 1.1 (migraine without aura) in 2.35%, IHS 1.2 (migraine with aura) in 0.62%, IHS 1.7 (migrainous disorders not fulfilling migraine criteria) in 1.52%, and IHS 13 (headache not classifiable) in 1.38% of the examined pupils.



In adolescents, the low prevalence estimates of migraine headache coded IHS 1.1 and the relatively high prevalence estimates of headaches coded IHS 1.7 and IHS 13 have appeared to be a consequence of the rigidity of some operational diagnostic criteria of the recent IHS classification rather than of the geographical, environmental, or socioeconomical pecularities of the cohort.



Therefore, in order to improve the reliability and the exhaustiveness of the IHS classification by increasing its sensitivity, we believe that minor modifications of the diagnostic criteria are necessary. Within these revised criteria, the subitem “moderate or severe intensity” of pain headache should become mandatory, whereas the lower limit of the criterion “duration of pain” should be reduced to 1 hour.

The IHS classification criteria for migraine headaches in adolescents need minor modifications.

Headaches in Preschoolers: are Red Flags Predictive of PositiveNeuroimaging in Emergency Department?

We have investigated in the 1989 the occurency and the clinical characteristics of migraine headaches in a high school student popUlation aged between 11 and 18 of Monreale,a small country near Palermo. We followed the taxonomic and diagnostic criteria for migraine headaches established in the 1988 by the Headache Classification committee of the International Headache society (1). The epidemiological and clinical investigations were done through two questionnaires. The first questionnaire was used in order to screen subjects affected by headache, whereas the second questionnaire which detailed carefully the characteristics of the migraine headaches was used in order to check for primary headaches of migraine type. We examined a popUlation of 1954 subjects of which 876 (44.80%) were male and 1078 (55.20%) were female. We included in our epidemiological survey only those subjects who, during the 1988,experienced at least two episodes of headaches. Subjects reaching our inclusion criteria were 504 (25.80% of the total population investigated) of which 322 (63.90%)(16.50% of the total popUlation) were male and 182 (36.10%)(9.30% of the total population) were female. These subjects were further examined through the second questionnaire. Migraine headache was diagnosed in 81 (16.10%) of these 504 sUbjects. Of these 81 subjects,62 (76.50%)(3.20% of the total popUlation examined) were coded 1.1 because they fulfilled the required criteria for migraine without aura,whereas 19 (23.50%) (0.97% of the total population examined) were coded 1.2 because they fulfilled the required criteria for migraine with aura. As far as the gender distribution of subjects coded 1.1 is concerned,male were 23 (2. 60% of male popUlation examined) and female were 39

Vincenzo Raieli

Papers

Migraine headaches in adolescents : a student population-based study in Monreale

Transient topographical amnesia and cingulate cortex damage: a case report.

The IHS classification criteria for migraine headaches in adolescents need minor modifications.

Headaches in Preschoolers: are Red Flags Predictive of PositiveNeuroimaging in Emergency Department?

Migraine Headaches in a High School Student Population.