Human differentiation on the basis of gender is a fundamental phenomenon that affects virtually every aspect of people's daily lives. This article presents the social cognitive theory of gender role development and functioning. It specifies how gender conceptions are constructed from the complex mix of experiences and how they operate in concert with motivational and self-regulatory mechanisms to guide gender-linked conduct throughout the life course. The theory integrates psychological and sociostructural determinants within a unified conceptual structure. In this theoretical perspective, gender conceptions and roles are the product of a broad network of social influences operating interdependently in a variety of societal subsystems. Human evolution provides bodily structures and biological potentialities that permit a range of possibilities rather than dictate a fixed type of gender differentiation. People contribute to their self-development and bring about social changes that define and structure gender relationships through their agentic actions within the interrelated systems of influence.

https://www.uky.edu/~eushe2/Bandura/Bandura1999PR.pdf

Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation.

Considered in the review are 16 studies on the stability of aggressive behavior and reaction patterns. There is great variation among the studies in sample composition, in definition of variables, in method of data collection, and in the ages and intervals studied. Generally, the size of a (disattenuated) stability coefficient tends to decrease linearly as the interval between the two times of measurement (T2— 7\) increases. Furthermore, the degree of stability can be broadly described as a positive linear function of the interval covered and the subject's age at the time of first measurement, expressed in the age ratio T-^/T^,. The degree of stability that exists in the area of aggression was found to be quite substantial; it was, in fact, not much lower than the stability typically found in the domain of intelligence testing. Marked individual differences in habitual aggression level manifest themselves early in life, certainly by the age of 3. It was generally concluded that (a) the degree of longitudinal consistency in aggressive behavior patterns is much greater than has been maintained by proponents of a behavioral specificity position, and (b) important determinants of the observed longitudinal consistency are to be found in relatively stable, individual-differentiating reaction tendencies or motive systems (personality variables) within individuals.

Stability of aggressive reaction patterns in males: a review.

在翟象俊主编的《大学英语》第2册第5单元中，有这样一个句子：“As a boy and then as an adult, I never lost my wonder at the personality that was Einstein.”教参中指出“the personality that was Einstein”应理解为“the personality which was the most striking characteristic of Einstein”，该句译为“作为一个孩子，到后来作为一个成人，我一直对爱因斯坦的个性惊叹不已”。很明显，在这里译者把“personality”理解为“个性，人格”，但本人认为应译为“人物，名人”更妥。“personality”可作“个性，人格”讲，但它还有另外一个重要意思。在陆谷孙主编的《英汉大词典》（1993年版）中，“personality”第3条释义为：“个人，人物，名人”：“appoint a personality to lead a campaign，派一个人去领导一场运动”。“a personality in the news，新闻人物”。在...

此处“personality”译法探析

A Study of Thinking

It has been argued that there is an acceleration of gender-differential socialization during adolescence, perhaps at the onset of puberty or shortly after, and perhaps especially for girls. New domains may become the object of gender-differential socialization pressure and demands for conformity may increase in domains previously subject to such pressure. We shall refer to this argument as the Gender-Intensification Hypothesis. The hypothesis frequently is invoked to explain observed behavioral differences between adolescent boys and girls. Here we shall review information bearing upon the hypothesis and suggest some new points of departure for research related to it and to the study of gender-differential socialization during adolescence in general. We begin by considering some forms in which the hypothesis appears and then turn to our review and to its implications.

The Intensification of Gender-Related Role Expectations during Early Adolescence

EMMERICH, WALTER; GOLDMAN, KARLA S.; KIRSH, BARBARA; and SHARABANY, RUTH. Evidence for a Transitional Phase in the Development of Gender Constancy. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1977, 48, 930-936. This study identifies a phase in the development of gender identity which is transitional to attainment of gender constancy in the concrete operational sense. During this transitional phase, the child can judge gender constant despite stimulus transformation, but his reasoning is bound to certain stimulus cues and falls short of an operational concept of gender invariance. Distinctive structural properties of this phase are discussed. Based upon a developmental study of economically disadvantaged children aged 4-7, evidence is presented on the sequential placement of this transitional phase and on the role of general cognitive development in its mediation. The generalizability of this transitional phase and its possible import for sex-role development are discussed.

Evidence for a transitional phase in the development of gender constancy.

It is proposed that many concepts of personality structure and structural development are of primary relevance to one of three general orientations, here called the "classical," "differential," and "ipsative" views. Certain theoretical and methodological features of each approach are reviewed. The discussion emphasizes differences and similarities among the views, and points out some implications for research.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/info/1126978

Personality development and concepts of structure.

A short-term longitudinal study of 38 middle-class nursery school children investigated the dimensionality, continuity, and stability of early social behavior. Factor analyses successfully ordered individual differences in each of four successive semesters of nursery school attendance. The most continuous and stable dimension throughout this period was Interpersonal vs. Impersonal Orientation. Interpersonal children also tended to be negative in attitude, whereas impersonal children were likely to be positive. There was evidence for a developmental transformation during the fourth semester when the previously interpersonal-negative child became poised, while his previously impersonal-positive counterpart became socially insecure.

Continuity and stability in early social development.

parent-child relationships and the child's personality structure at different periods of development. In broadest outline, his view is that: (a) each phase of socialization is initiated by an increased differentiation of the social structure into which the child is being socialized; (b) under the impact of each "new" social structure, there are certain changes in the motivations, cognitions, and performances of the child; (c) there is an ordered sequence of social structures during socialization and a corresponding developmental sequence of needs and role conceptions in the child; (d) each reorganization of needs and roles in this sequence arises from a discrimination (bifurcation) on a specific dimension to which the child was previously insensitive; (e) the dimensions used to discriminate needs and roles are derived from the Pattern Variables (11), postulated to be a basic and exhaustive set of binary choices made in any action sequence by the mature adult. This study investigates several aspects of Parsons' theory concerning the development of parent and child role concepts in the young child. The mother, father, daughter, and son are treated as four basic role types in the family social structure. It is hypothesized that the discrimination of

Young children's discriminations of parent and child roles.

Recent secular trends have attenuated long-term continuities in sex-role socialization, but sex differences within age periods probably continue to be aspects of one or more ontogenetic series. Knowledge about sex-role development remains fragmentary at all age periods largely because underlying theoretical assumptions have not been satisfactorily incorporated into research designs. It is suggested that each theory of socialization can be translated into a distinct set of predictions for the several parameters of developmental trends in behavior (dependent variables) and for the impact of socializing influences (independent variables) upon these developmental trends. Certain concepts are suggested for sex-role measurement, including the competence-performance distinction. In illustrating these points, particular attention is given to psychodynamic and cognitive theories of sex-role identity, and to internalized normative structures as regulators of sex-role behaviors and development. Implications for a life-span developmental framework are discussed, including the issue of ontogenetic versus secular changes in sex roles, differences between early and later sex-role socialization, and the possibility that sex-role development is subordinated to other ontogenetic sequences during much of the life cycle.

Walter Emmerich

Papers

Evidence for a transitional phase in the development of gender constancy.

Personality development and concepts of structure.

Continuity and stability in early social development.

Young children's discriminations of parent and child roles.

Socialization and Sex-Role Development