Comparison of eight published static finite element models of the intact lumbar spine: Predictive power of models improves when combined together

The facet joint is a crucial anatomic region of the spine owing to its biomechanical role in facilitating articulation of the vertebrae of the spinal column. It is a diarthrodial joint with opposing articular cartilage surfaces that provide a low friction environment and a ligamentous capsule that encloses the joint space. Together with the disc, the bilateral facet joints transfer loads and guide and constrain motions in the spine due to their geometry and mechanical function. Although a great deal of research has focused on defining the biomechanics of the spine and the form and function of the disc, the facet joint has only recently become the focus of experimental, computational and clinical studies. This mechanical behavior ensures the normal health and function of the spine during physiologic loading but can also lead to its dysfunction when the tissues of the facet joint are altered either by injury, degeneration or as a result of surgical modification of the spine. The anatomical, biomechanical and physiological characteristics of the facet joints in the cervical and lumbar spines have become the focus of increased attention recently with the advent of surgical procedures of the spine, such as disc repair and replacement, which may impact facet responses. Accordingly, this review summarizes the relevant anatomy and biomechanics of the facet joint and the individual tissues that comprise it. In order to better understand the physiological implications of tissue loading in all conditions, a review of mechanotransduction pathways in the cartilage, ligament and bone is also presented ranging from the tissue-level scale to cellular modifications. With this context, experimental studies are summarized as they relate to the most common modifications that alter the biomechanics and health of the spine-injury and degeneration. In addition, many computational and finite element models have been developed that enable more-detailed and specific investigations of the facet joint and its tissues than are provided by experimental approaches and also that expand their utility for the field of biomechanics. These are also reviewed to provide a more complete summary of the current knowledge of facet joint mechanics. Overall, the goal of this review is to present a comprehensive review of the breadth and depth of knowledge regarding the mechanical and adaptive responses of the facet joint and its tissues across a variety of relevant size scales.

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Spinal facet joint biomechanics and mechanotransduction in normal, injury and degenerative conditions

STUDY DESIGN The insertional torque of pedicle screws using the cortical bone trajectory (CBT) was measured in vivo. OBJECTIVE To investigate the effectiveness of the CBT technique by measurement of the insertional torque. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA The CBT follows a mediolateral and caudocephalad directed path, engaging with cortical bone maximally from the pedicle to the vertebral body. Some biomechanical studies have demonstrated favorable characteristics of the CBT technique in cadaveric lumbar spine. However, no in vivo study has been reported on the mechanical behavior of this new trajectory. METHODS The insertional torque of pedicle screws using CBT and traditional techniques were measured intraoperatively in 48 consecutive patients. A total of 162 screws using the CBT technique and 36 screws using the traditional technique were compared. In 8 of 48 patients, the side-by-side comparison of 2 different insertional techniques for each vertebra were performed, which formed the H group. In addition, the insertional torque was correlated with bone mineral density. RESULTS The mean maximum insertional torque of CBT screws and traditional screws were 2.49 ± 0.99 Nm and 1.24 ± 0.54 Nm, respectively. The CBT screws showed 2.01 times higher torque and the difference was significant between the 2 techniques (P < 0.01). In the H group, the insertional torque were 2.71 ± 1.36 Nm in the CBT screws and 1.58 ± 0.44 Nm in the traditional screws. The CBT screws demonstrated 1.71 times higher torque and statistical significance was achieved (P < 0.01). Positive linear correlations between maximum insertional torque and bone mineral density were found in both technique, the correlation coefficient of traditional screws (r = 0.63, P < 0.01) was higher than that of the CBT screws (r = 0.59, P < 0.01). CONCLUSION The insertional torque using the CBT technique is about 1.7 times higher than the traditional technique. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE 2.

In vivo analysis of insertional torque during pedicle screwing using cortical bone trajectory technique.

There are three basic concepts that are important to the biomechanics of pedicle screw-based instrumentation. First, the outer diameter of the screw determines pullout strength, while the inner diameter determines fatigue strength. Secondly, when inserting a pedicle screw, the dorsal cortex of the spine should not be violated and the screws on each side should converge and be of good length. Thirdly, fixation can be augmented in cases of severe osteoporosis or revision. A trajectory parallel or caudal to the superior endplate can minimise breakage of the screw from repeated axial loading. Straight insertion of the pedicle screw in the mid-sagittal plane provides the strongest stability. Rotational stability can be improved by adding transverse connectors. The indications for their use include anterior column instability, and the correction of rotational deformity.

The biomechanics of pedicle screw-based instrumentation

Study design Seven different combinations of posterior screw fixation, with or without interbody support, were compared in vitro using nondestructive flexibility tests. Objective To study the biomechanical behavior of a new cortical screw (CS) fixation construct relative to the traditional pedicle screw (PS) construct. Summary of background data The CS is an alternative to the PS for posterior fixation of the lumbar spine. The CS trajectory is more sagittally and cranially oriented than the PS, being anchored in the pars interarticularis. Like PS fixation, CS fixation uses interconnecting rods fastened with top-locking connectors. Stability after bilateral CS fixation was compared with stability after bilateral PS fixation in the setting of intact disc and with direct lateral interbody fixation (DLIF) or transforaminal lateral interbody fixation (TLIF) support. Methods Standard nondestructive flexibility tests were performed in cadaveric lumbar specimens, allowing non-paired comparisons of specific conditions from 28 specimens (4 groups of 7) within a larger experiment of multiple hardware configurations. Condition tested and group from which results originated were as follows: (1) intact (all groups); (2) with L3-L4 bilateral PS-rods (group 1); (3) with bilateral CS-rods (group 2); (4) with DLIF (group 3); (5) with DLIF + CS-rods (group 4); (6) with DLIF + PS-rods (group 3); (7) with TLIF + CS-rods (group 2), and (8) with TLIF + PS-rods (group 2). To assess spinal stability, the mean range of motion, lax zone, and stiff zone at L3-L4 were compared during flexion-extension, lateral bending, and axial rotation. Results With intact disc, stability was equivalent after PS-rod and CS-rod fixation, except that PS-rod fixation was stiffer during axial rotation. With DLIF support, there was no significant difference in stability between PS-rod and CS-rod fixation. With TLIF support, PS-rod fixation was stiffer than CS-rod fixation during lateral bending. Conclusion Bilateral CS-rod fixation provided about the same stability in cadaveric specimens as PS-rod fixation regardless of the presence of interbody, TLIF, or DLIF support.

Biomechanics of Lumbar Cortical Screw-Rod Fixation Versus Pedicle Screw-Rod Fixation With and Without Interbody Support

Cortical bone trajectory for lumbar pedicle screws.

Study design: A parametric finite element investigation of the cervical spine.
Objective: To determine what effect, if any, cervical disc replacement has on kinematics, facet contact parameters, and anterior column loading.
Summary of Background Data: Anterior cervical discectomy and fusion (ACDF) has been a standard treatment for certain spinal degenerative disorders, but evidence suggests that fusion contributes to adjacent-segment degeneration. Motion-sparing disc replacement implants are believed to reduce adjacent-segment degeneration by preserving kinematics at the treated level. Such implants have been shown to maintain the mobility of the intact spine, but the effects on load transfer between the anterior and posterior elements remain poorly understood.
Methods: In order to investigate the effects of disc replacement on load transfer in the lower cervical spine, a finite element model was generated using cadaver-based Computed Tomography (CT) imagery. Mesh resolution was varied in order to establish model convergence, and cadaveric testing was undertaken to validate model predictions. The validated model was altered to include a disc replacement prosthesis at the C4/C5 level. The effect of disc-replacement on range of motion, antero-posterior load distribution, contact forces in the facets, as well as the distribution of contact pressure on the facets were examined. Three sizes of implants were examined.
Results: Model predictions indicate that the properly-sized implant retains the mobility, load sharing, and contact force magnitude and distribution of the intact case. Mobility, load sharing, nuclear pressures, and contact pressures at the adjacent motion segments were not strongly affected by the presence of the properly sized implant, indicating that disc replacement may not be a significant cause of post-operative adjacent-level degeneration. Implant size affected certain mechanical parameters, such as antero-posterior load sharing, and did not affect compliance or range of motion.
Conclusions: The results of this work support the continued use of motion sparing implants in the lower cervical spine. Load sharing data indicate that implant size may be an important factor that merits further study, although the deleterious effects of improper size selection may be less significant than those of fusion.

Finite element modeling of kinematic and load transmission alterations due to cervical intervertebral disc replacement.

Current finite element modeling techniques utilize geometrically inaccurate cartilage distribution representations in the lumbar spine. We hypothesize that this shortcoming severely limits the predictive fidelity of these simulations. Specifically, it is unclear how these anatomically inaccurate cartilage representations alter range of motion and facet contact predictions. In the current study, cadaveric vertebrae were serially sectioned, and images were taken of each slice in order to identify the osteochondral interface and the articulating surface. A series of custom-written algorithms were utilized in order to quantify each facet joint's three-dimensional cartilage distribution using a previously developed methodology. These vertebrae-dependent thickness cartilage distributions were implemented on an L1 through L5 lumbar spine finite element model. Moments were applied in three principal planes of motion, and range of motion and facet contact predictions from the variable thickness and constant thickness distribution models were determined. Initial facet gap thickness dimensions were also parameterized. The data indicate that the mean and maximum cartilage thickness increased inferiorly from L1 to L5, with an overall mean thickness value of 0.57 mm. Cartilage distribution and initial facet joint gap thickness had little influence on the lumbar range of motion in any direction, whereas the mean contact pressure, total contact force, and total contact area predictions were altered considerably. The data indicate that range of motion predictions alone are insufficient to establish model validation intended to predict mechanical contact parameters. These data also emphasize the need for the careful consideration of the initial facet joint gap thickness with respect to the spinal condition being studied.

Finite element lumbar spine facet contact parameter predictions are affected by the cartilage thickness distribution and initial joint gap size

https://www.oarsijournal.com/article/S1063-4584(08)00020-4/pdf

Lower cervical spine facet cartilage thickness mapping.

With motion-sparing disk replacement implants gaining popularity as an alternative to anterior cervical discectomy and fusion (ACDF) for the treatment of certain spinal degenerative disorders, recent laboratory investigations have studied the effects of disk replacement and implant design on spinal kinematics and kinetics. Particularly relevant to cervical disk replacement implant design are any postoperative changes in solid stresses or contact conditions in the articular cartilage of the posterior facets, which are hypothesized to lead to adjacent-level degeneration. Such changes are commonly investigated using finite element methods, but significant simplification of the articular geometry is generally employed. The impact of such geometric representations has not been thoroughly investigated. In order to assess the effects of different models of cartilage geometry on load transfer and contact pressures in the lower cervical spine, a finite element model was generated using cadaver-based computed tomography imagery. Mesh resolution was varied in order to establish model convergence, and cadaveric testing was undertaken to validate model predictions. The validated model was altered to include four different geometric representations of the articular cartilage. Model predictions indicate that the two most common representations of articular cartilage geometry result in significant reductions in the predictive accuracy of the models. The two anatomically based geometric models exhibited less computational artifact, and relatively minor differences between them indicate that contact condition predictions of spatially varying thickness models are robust to anatomic variations in cartilage thickness and articular curvature. The results of this work indicate that finite element modeling efforts in the lower cervical spine should include anatomically based and spatially varying articular cartilage thickness models. Failure to do so may result in loss of fidelity of model predictions relevant to investigations of physiological import.

Wesley J. Womack

Papers

Cortical bone trajectory for lumbar pedicle screws.

Finite element modeling of kinematic and load transmission alterations due to cervical intervertebral disc replacement.

Finite element lumbar spine facet contact parameter predictions are affected by the cartilage thickness distribution and initial joint gap size

Lower cervical spine facet cartilage thickness mapping.

Cartilage thickness distribution affects computational model predictions of cervical spine facet contact parameters.