Laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) process has been investigated significantly to build production parts with a complex shape. Modeling tools, which can be used in a part level, are essential to allow engineers to fine tune the shape design and process parameters for additive manufacturing. This study focuses on developing modeling methods to predict microstructure, hardness, residual stress, and deformation in large L-PBF built parts. A transient sequentially coupled thermal and metallurgical analysis method was developed to predict microstructure and hardness on L-PBF built high-strength, low-alloy steel parts. A moving heat-source model was used in this analysis to accurately predict the temperature history. A kinetics based model which was developed to predict microstructure in the heat-affected zone of a welded joint was extended to predict the microstructure and hardness in an L-PBF build by inputting the predicted temperature history. The tempering effect resulting from the following built layers on the current-layer microstructural phases were modeled, which is the key to predict the final hardness correctly. It was also found that the top layers of a build part have higher hardness because of the lack of the tempering effect. A sequentially coupled thermal and mechanical analysis method was developed to predict residual stress and deformation for an L-PBF build part. It was found that a line-heating model is not suitable for analyzing a large L-PBF built part. The layer heating method is a potential method for analyzing a large L-PBF built part. The experiment was conducted to validate the model predictions.

Prediction of microstructure, residual stress, and deformation in laser powder bed fusion process

Welding is a major manufacturing process that joins two or more pieces of materials together through heating/mixing them followed by cooling/solidification. The goal of welding manufacturing is to join materials together to meet service requirements at lowest costs. Advanced welding manufacturing is to use scientific methods to realize this goal. This paper views advanced welding manufacturing as a three step approach: (1) pre-design that selects process and joint design based on available processes (properties, capabilities, and costs); (2) design that uses models to predict the result from a given set of welding parameters and minimizes a cost function for optimizing the welding parameters; and (3) real-time sensing and control that overcome the deviations of welding conditions from their nominal ones used in optimizing the welding parameters by adjusting the welding parameters based on such real-time sensing and feedback control. The paper analyzes how these three steps depend on process properties/capabilities, process innovations, predictive models, numerical models for fluid dynamics, numerical models for structures, real-time sensing, and dynamic control. The paper also identifies the challenges in obtaining ideal solutions and reviews/analyzes the existing efforts toward better solutions. Special attention and analysis have been given to (1) gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) and gas metal arc welding (GMAW) as benchmark processes for penetration and materials filling; (2) keyhole plasma arc welding (PAW), keyhole-tungsten inert gas (K-TIG), and keyhole laser welding as improved/capable penetrative processes; (3) friction stir welding (FSW) as a special penetrative low heat input process; (4) alternating current (AC) GMAW and double-electrode GMAW as improved materials filling processes; (5) efforts in numerical modeling for fluid dynamics; (6) efforts in numerical modeling for structures; (7) challenges and efforts in seam tracking and weld pool monitoring; (8) challenges and efforts in monitoring of keyhole laser welding and FSW; and (9) efforts in advanced sensing, data fusion/sensor fusion, and process control using machine learning/deep learning, model predictive control (MPC), and adaptive control.

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Advanced Welding Manufacturing: A Brief Analysis and Review of Challenges and Solutions

Influences of lumped passes on welding residual stress of a thick-walled nuclear rotor steel pipe by multipass narrow gap welding

The plasticity-based distortion prediction method was improved to address the computationally intensive nature of welding simulations. Plastic strains, which are typically first computed using either two-dimensional (2D) or three-dimensional (3D) thermo-elastic-plastic analysis (EPA) on finite element models of simple weld geometry, are mapped to the full structure finite element model to predict distortion by conducting a linear elastic analysis. To optimize welding sequence to control distortion, a new theory was developed to consider the effect of weld interactions on plastic strains. This improved method was validated with experimental work on a Tee joint and tested on two large-scale welded structures—a light fabrication and a heavy fabrication—by comparing against full-blown distortion predictions using thermo-EPA. 3D solid and shell models were used for the heavy and light fabrications, respectively, to compute plastic strains due to each weld. Quantitative comparisons between this method and thermo-EPA indicate that this method can predict distortions fairly accurately—even for different welding sequences—and is roughly 1-2 orders of magnitude faster. It was concluded from these findings that, with further technical development, this method can be an ideal solver for optimizing welding sequences.

An Improved Plasticity-Based Distortion Analysis Method for Large Welded Structures

In this study finite element simulation approaches (lumping and prescribed temperature) are implemented to study residual stress distribution in a welded box type structure. This component is a vit ...

Assessment of computational weld mechanics concepts for estimation of residual stresses in welded box structures

A lump-pass welding simulation technology was developed for shipbuilding and ship repair applications based on Battelle and Caterpillar developed VFT™ weld modeling software. To develop this technology, we reanalyzed a 3D multi-pass model that was originally used in the NIST project where VFT™ was developed. In this model, good agreement was achieved between the moving arc simulation and the experimental data. By reanalyzing this model using lump-pass technology, the heat input calculation method was developed. To further establish the efficiency of the lump-pass technology, we performed analyses on a structural configuration common to the maritime industry. The structure consisted of many longitudinal and transverse stiffeners that were welded vertically at stiffener interface locations and welded horizontally to a one-inch thick base plate. These welds included numerous multi-pass tee and butt joints. For verifying the accuracy of the lump-pass weld simulation technology, an actual structural mock-up was built with FCAW and SMAW processes. Additionally, we performed a detailed moving arc solution to compare with the lump-pass solution of the same weld sequence to further evaluate the efficacy of the lump-pass approach. The simulation results show that the lump-pass approach is suitable for predicting weld-induced distortion in ship fabrication.Copyright © 2002 by ASME

Y. P. Yang

Papers

Lump-Pass Welding Simulation Technology Development for Shipbuilding Applications