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Learning Vocabulary In Another Language

This meta-analysis aimed to clarify the complex relationship between repetition and second language (L2) incidental vocabulary learning by meta-analyzing primary studies reporting correlation coefficients between the number of encounters and vocabulary learning. We synthesized and quantitatively analyzed 45 effect sizes from 26 studies (N = 1,918) to calculate the mean effect size of the frequency–learning relationship and to explore the extent to which 10 empirically motivated variables moderate this relationship. Results showed that there was a medium effect (r = .34) of repetition on incidental vocabulary learning. Subsequent moderator analyses revealed that variability in the size of repetition effects across studies was explained by learner variables (age, vocabulary knowledge), treatment variables (spaced learning, visual support, engagement, range in number of encounters), and methodological differences (nonword use, forewarning of

The Effects of Repetition on Incidental Vocabulary Learning: A Meta-Analysis of Correlational Studies

Reading affords opportunities for L2 vocabulary acquisition. Empirical research into the pace and trajectory of this acquisition has both theoretical and applied value. Charting the development of different aspects of word knowledge can verify and inform theoretical frameworks of word learning and reading comprehension. It can also inform practical decisions about using L2 readings in academic study. Monitoring readers' eye movements provides real-time data on word learning, under the conditions that closely approximate adult L2 vocabulary acquisition from reading. In this study, Dutch-speaking university students read an English expository text, while their eye movements were recorded. Of interest were patterns of change in the eye movements on the target low-frequency words that occurred multiple times in the text, and whether differences in the processing of target and control (known) words decreased overtime. Target word reading outside of the familiar text was examined in a posttest using semantically neutral sentences. The findings show that orthographic processing develops relatively quickly and reliably. However, online retrieval of meaning remains insufficient for fluent word-to-text integration even after multiple contextual encounters.

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Contextual Word Learning during Reading in a Second Language: An Eye-Movement Study.

The effect of spacing in relation to word segmentation was examined for four groups of non-native Chinese speakers (American, Korean, Japanese, and Thai) who were learning Chinese as second language. Chinese sentences with four types of spacing information were used: unspaced text, word-spaced text, character-spaced text, and nonword-spaced text. Also, participants' native languages were different in terms of their basic characteristics: English and Korean are spaced, whereas the other two are unspaced; Japanese is character based whereas the other three are alphabetic. Thus, we assessed whether any spacing effects were modulated by native language characteristics. Eye movement measures showed least disruption to reading for word-spaced text and longer reading times for unspaced than character-spaced text, with nonword-spaced text yielding the most disruption. These effects were uninfluenced by native language (though reading times differed between groups as a result of Chinese reading experience). Demarcation of word boundaries through spacing reduces non-native readers' uncertainty about the characters that constitute a word, thereby speeding lexical identification, and in turn, reading. More generally, the results indicate that words have psychological reality for those who are learning to read Chinese as a second language, and that segmentation of text into words is more beneficial to successful comprehension than is separating individual Chinese characters with spaces.

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Eye movements of second language learners when reading spaced and unspaced Chinese text.

Captions provide a useful aid to language learners for comprehending videos and learning new vocabulary, aligning with theories of multimedia learning. Multimedia learning predicts that a learner’s working memory (WM) influences the usefulness of captions. In this study, we present two eye-tracking experiments investigating the role of WM in captioned video viewing behavior and comprehension. In Experiment 1, Spanish-as-a-foreign-language learners differed in caption use according to their level of comprehension and to a lesser extent, their WM capacities. WM did not impact comprehension. In Experiment 2, Englishas-a-second-language learners differed in comprehension according to their WM capacities. Those with high comprehension and high WM used captions less on a second viewing. These findings highlight the effects of potential individual differences and have implications for the integration of multimedia with captions in instructed language learning. We discuss how captions may help neutralize some of working memory’s limiting effects on learning.

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How captions help people learn languages: A working-memory, eye-tracking study

This study responds to the call for more ecologically valid psycholinguistic research (Spivey & Cardon, 2015) by examining how readers incidentally acquire multifaceted vocabulary knowledge while reading a long, authentic text. Using eye tracking, we explore how the processing of unfamiliar words changes with repeated exposure and how the repeated exposure and processing affect word learning. In two sessions, native and non-native English speakers read five chapters of an authentic English novel containing Dari words. After reading, participants received a comprehension test and three surprise vocabulary tests. Growth curve modeling revealed a non-linear decrease in reading times that followed an S shaped curve. Number of exposures was the strongest predictor of vocabulary learning (form and meaning), while total reading time independently contributed to the learning of word meaning. Thus, both quantity and quality of lexical processing aid incremental vocabulary development and may reveal themselves differently in readers’ eye movement records.

Incidental vocabulary learning in a natural reading context: an eye-tracking study

This study investigated the cognitive validity of two child English language tests. Some teachers maintain that these types of tests may be cognitively invalid because native-English-speaking children would not do well on them (Winke, 2011). So the researchers had native speakers and learners of English aged 7 to 9 take sample versions of two standardized English reading and writing tests: the Young Learners Tests of English, Bronze and Silver, administered by Cambridge Michigan Language Assessments. They videotaped the children taking the tests, had them draw pictures of how they felt during testing, and interviewed them. The tests reliably discriminated learners from native speakers. However, 3 of 25 items on the Bronze test and 5 of 40 on the Silver test proved more difficult for native speakers than for language learners. The researchers interviewed the children to uncover why; incorrect responses stemmed from lack of assessment literacy or age-related cognitive limitations, not deficits in English. The researchers discuss whether this is a problem and conclude that standardized language tests for children, even those already psychometrically reliable and valid, can be improved upon by interviewing child test takers. They stress that parallel information from same-age, native-English-speaking peers is informative in revealing construct-irrelevant variance.

The Cognitive Validity of Child English Language Tests: What Young Language Learners and Their Native-Speaking Peers Can Reveal.

The COVID-19 outbreak has seen the largest-scale emergency remote teaching in world history. Drawing on concepts of teacher belief and teacher agency, this study seeks to explore whether teachers’ beliefs about teacher roles may influence their agentive use of online technology amid and after COVID-19. By tracing four English as a Foreign Language teacher participants in both an emergency remote teaching context and a resumed face-to-face classroom setting, our study reveals a complex relationship between teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and their online teaching practices. This study highlights the role of teacher agency and calls for a closer examination of the complexity of teacher roles to better understand teachers’ agentive technology integration in teaching. The study bears significance for educational technology development and teacher education for emergency remote teaching in the post-pandemic era.

English as a Foreign Language Teachers’ Pedagogical Beliefs About Teacher Roles and Their Agentic Actions Amid and After COVID-19: A Case Study

‘I never knew I could have so many future possibilities’: a case study of an ethnic minority student in mainstream higher education in China

Educational reforms often precipitate teacher tensions that subsequently impact teacher identity (re)construction. Adopting a community of practice (CoP) framework to examine identity-, belief- and emotion-inflected tensions, and drawing on data from five rounds of interviews, our longitudinal case study traced the identity reformation of an English teacher, Lee, as he negotiated an English for Academic Purposes (EAP) reform in China. We found that Lee’s constant teacher identity conflicts were intertwined with tensions that arose as he negotiated his (1) beliefs about students’ needs and acknowledgment of their language incompetency, and (2) reform-positive emotions and self-negative emotions. Our findings revealed, however, that these tensions were mediated through the assistance afforded by his CoP, which, on the one hand, effectively scaffolded community members’ teaching practices and helped ease the tensions that emerged but, on the other hand, created space for multiple voices to coexist, make adjustments, and thus subsequently achieve reconciliation. Highlighting the role of CoP in teacher development, our findings help advance the teacher identity research agenda by taking a holistic view on work-related tensions, and thus bear implications for educational reformers, teacher educators, and university administrators.

‘Agree to disagree’: Reconciling an English teacher’s identity tensions in negotiating an educational reform through a community of practice perspective

Yaqiong Cui

Papers

Incidental vocabulary learning in a natural reading context: an eye-tracking study

The Cognitive Validity of Child English Language Tests: What Young Language Learners and Their Native-Speaking Peers Can Reveal.

English as a Foreign Language Teachers’ Pedagogical Beliefs About Teacher Roles and Their Agentic Actions Amid and After COVID-19: A Case Study

‘I never knew I could have so many future possibilities’: a case study of an ethnic minority student in mainstream higher education in China

‘Agree to disagree’: Reconciling an English teacher’s identity tensions in negotiating an educational reform through a community of practice perspective