As one of the most promising applications in future Internet of Things, Internet of Vehicles (IoV) has been acknowledged as a fundamental technology for developing the Intelligent Transportation Systems in smart cities. With the emergence of the sixth generation (6G) communications technologies, massive network infrastructures will be densely deployed and the number of network nodes will increase exponentially, leading to extremely high energy consumption. There has been an upsurge of interest to develop the green IoV towards sustainable vehicular communication and networking in the 6G era. However, as a special mobile ad-hoc network, the energy cost in an IoV system involves the communication and computation energy in addition to the fuel consumption and the electricity cost of moving vehicles. Moreover, the energy harvesting technology, which is likely to be adopted widely in 6G systems, will complicate the optimization of energy efficiency in the entire system. Current studies focus only on part of the energy issues in IoV systems without a comprehensive discussion of the state-of-the-art energy-efficient approaches and the influence of the development of 6G networks on green IoV. In this paper, we present the main considerations for green IoV from five different scenarios, including the communication, computation, traffic, Electric Vehicles (EVs), and energy harvesting management. The literature relevant to each of the scenarios is compared from the perspective of energy optimization (e.g., with respect to resource allocation, workload scheduling, routing design, traffic control, charging management, energy harvesting and sharing) and the related factors affecting energy efficiency (e.g., resource limitation, channel state, network topology, traffic condition). In addition, we introduce the potential challenges and the emerging technologies in 6G for developing green IoV systems. Finally, we discuss the research trends in designing energy-efficient IoV systems.

Green Internet of Vehicles (IoV) in the 6G Era: Toward Sustainable Vehicular Communications and Networking

As one of the most promising applications in future Internet of Things, Internet of Vehicles (IoV) has been acknowledged as a fundamental technology for developing the Intelligent Transportation Systems in smart cities. With the emergence of the sixth generation (6G) communications technologies, massive network infrastructures will be densely deployed and the number of network nodes will increase exponentially, leading to extremely high energy consumption. There has been an upsurge of interest to develop the green IoV towards sustainable vehicular communication and networking in the 6G era. However, as a special mobile ad-hoc network, the energy cost in an IoV system involves the communication and computation energy in addition to the fuel consumption and the electricity cost of moving vehicles. Moreover, the energy harvesting technology, which is likely to be adopted widely in 6G systems, will complicate the optimization of energy efficiency in the entire system. Current studies focus only on part of the energy issues in IoV systems without a comprehensive discussion of the state-of-the-art energy-efficient approaches and the influence of the development of 6G networks on green IoV. In this paper, we present the main considerations for green IoV from five different scenarios, including the communication, computation, traffic, Electric Vehicles (EVs), and energy harvesting management. The literature relevant to each of the scenarios is compared from the perspective of energy optimization (e.g., with respect to resource allocation, workload scheduling, routing design, traffic control, charging management, energy harvesting and sharing) and the related factors affecting energy efficiency (e.g., resource limitation, channel state, network topology, traffic condition). In addition, we introduce the potential challenges and the emerging technologies in 6G for developing green IoV systems. Finally, we discuss the research trends in designing energy-efficient IoV systems. 

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The performance assessment of routing protocols in vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) plays a critical role in testing the efficiency of the routing algorithms before deployment in real conditions. This research introduces the statistical design of experiments (DOE) methodology as an innovative alternative to the one factor at a time (OFAT) approach for the assessment and the modeling of VANET routing protocol performance. In this paper, three design of experiments methods are applied, namely the two-level full factorial method, the Plackett–Burman method and the Taguchi method, and their outcomes are comprehensively compared. The present work considers a case study involving four factors namely: node density, number of connections, black hole and worm hole attacks. Their effects on four measured outputs called responses are simultaneously evaluated: throughput, packet loss ratio, average end-to-end delay and routing overhead of the AODV routing protocol. Further, regression models using the least squares method are generated. First, we compare the main effects of factors resulted from the three DOE methods. Second, we perform analysis of variance (ANOVA) to explore the statistical significance and compare the percentage contributions of each factor. Third, the goodness of fit of regression models is assessed using the adjusted R-squared measure and the fitting plots of measured versus predicted responses. VANET simulations are implemented using the network simulator (NS-3) and the simulator of urban mobility (SUMO). The findings reveal that the design of experiments methodology offers powerful mathematical, graphical and statistical techniques for analyzing and modeling the performance of VANET routing protocols with high accuracy and low costs. The three methods give equivalent results in terms of the main effect and ANOVA analysis. Nonetheless, the Taguchi models show higher predictive accuracy.

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Performance Assessment and Modeling of Routing Protocol in Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks Using Statistical Design of Experiments Methodology: A Comprehensive Study

The Internet of Vehicles (IoV) is an active area for innovation and an essential tool in achieving smart cities through the integration of vehicles with the Internet of Things (IoT). IoV is a distributed network that aids in handling the data generated by vehicular sensors and vehicle-to-everything communication (V2X), thus enabling novel applications such as autonomous driving and platooning while increasing safety and energy efficiency. In IoV, the sensors and the interdependent devices relay critical information for the efficient implementation of real-time applications in the ecosystem. Despite all these advancements, a vital challenge is establishing smooth communication among interconnected devices, concretely, interoperability in the IoV—a deceptively simple notion that is not yet fully addressed to achieve a fully integrated ecosystem. This is mainly because the networked domains, such as home, grid, and health care, are developed in silos, operating independently with diverse processes and protocols. Hence, seamless exchange of information is yet to be achieved across the ecosystem, hindering the maximization of the full promise of IoV. In this paper, we provide an in-depth analysis of the present state of interoperability and comprehensively survey the challenges in IoV. We present a taxonomy of interoperability approaches, review solutions that prior work have proposed, and provide insights on how to address the current challenges. Finally, we identify open problems that persist and future directions for research.

Survey of Interoperability Challenges in the Internet of Vehicles

Crowdsourced last mile delivery: Collaborative workforce assignment

Intelligent transportation systems (ITSs) are important applications of 5G mobile communication technology. Vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) are key part of intelligent transportation systems. Although 5G technology and infrastructure can significantly promote the development of VANETs, in some scenarios, for example, if 5G service is not available or the vehicle speed is too fast, device to device (D2D) will be an important means of communication. Therefore, combining 5G and D2D VANET communication is crucial to provide better connectivity. However, due to high-speed mobility, uneven distribution, and unpredictable vehicle behavior, the VANET network topology changes rapidly, and network connectivity is unstable. This phenomenon represent a considerable challenge to the routing protocol; at the same time, the continuous establishment of new routes needs to send a large number of routing requests (RREQ) and routing reply (RREP) packets, and it therefore consumes considerable energy. How to choose a more stable route is the key to implementing the routing protocol. In this paper, we take the most representative features of vehicles and roadways into consideration and based on the hypothesis of uneven vehicle distribution, we use a nonhomogeneous Poisson process to analyze the network connectivity and take the network connectivity as one of the routing decision metrics. Therefore, using fuzzy logic to make routing decisions under multiple selection criteria, we developed a new routing protocol named LENC (low-latency and energy-efficient routing based on network connectivity). Simulations have been performed comparing classical AODV and LENC. The results indicate that LENC represents a great improvement in routing stability and is superior to AODV in several aspects.

Yu Weng

Papers

A Low-Latency and Energy-Efficient Multimetric Routing Protocol Based on Network Connectivity in VANET Communication