Following concepts introduced by Markus and Kitayama, this study describes the theoretical and empirical development of a scale to measure the strength of an individual's interdependent and independent self-construals. These two images of self are conceptualized as reflecting the emphasis on connectedness and relations often found in non-Western cultures (interdependent) and the separateness and uniqueness of the individual (independent) stressed in the West. It is argued that these two images of self can and do coexist in individuals and that they can be measured. A 24-item Self-Construal Scale measuring two dimensions of self-image is presented. The two distinct dimensions of the scale were supported in confirmatory factor analyses of two multiethnic samples of college students. The scale was found to have satisfactory reliability and validity. Its implications and potential applications are discussed.

The Measurement of Independent and Interdependent Self-Construals

With data from 33 nations, we illustrate the differences between cultures that are tight (have many strong norms and a low tolerance of deviant behavior) versus loose (have weak social norms and a high tolerance of deviant behavior). Tightness-looseness is part of a complex, loosely integrated multilevel system that comprises distal ecological and historical threats (e.g., high population density, resource scarcity, a history of territorial conflict, and disease and environmental threats), broad versus narrow socialization in societal institutions (e.g., autocracy, media regulations), the strength of everyday recurring situations, and micro-level psychological affordances (e.g., prevention self-guides, high regulatory strength, need for structure). This research advances knowledge that can foster cross-cultural understanding in a world of increasing global interdependence and has implications for modeling cultural change.

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Differences Between Tight and Loose Cultures: A 33-Nation Study

Multimethod probes of individualism and collectivism.

An analysis of applications and replications of the work of Geert Hofstede was based on a collection of citations of published and unpublished material. Four types of usage were found: citations, reviews, empirical replications, and as a paradigm. The role of Hofstede's work is illustrated by the number of citations, the widespread usage of Hofstede's culture types beyond citation as well as con firmation of the results and validation of the dimensions by empirical research.

Research Note: Hofstede's Consequences: A Study of Reviews, Citations and Replications

Taking Stock in Our Progress on Individualism-Collectivism: 100 Years of Solidarity and Community

A British study of the informal rules of 22 social relationships was replicated among Japanese, Hong Kong and Italian samples. Subjects were asked to rate the importance of 33 common and varying numbers of relationship-specific rules to each of these relationships on a 9-point bipolar scale. Multivariate analyses showed each culture has a structure of highly endorsed rules, although a number of cross-cultural differences emerged in the nature of these rules, particularly those relating to intimacy. Certain cross-cultural predictions were confirmed.

Yuichi Iizuka

Papers

Cross‐cultural variations in relationship rules