https://www.cell.com/cell/pdf/S0092-8674(00)80949-6.pdf

Orexins and Orexin Receptors: A Family of Hypothalamic Neuropeptides and G Protein-Coupled Receptors that Regulate Feeding Behavior

The Prefrontal Cortex, Fifth Edition, provides users with a thoroughly updated version of this comprehensive work that has historically served as the classic reference on this part of the brain. The book offers a unifying, interdisciplinary perspective that is lacking in other volumes written about the frontal lobes, and is, once again, written by the award-winning author who discovered "memory cells," the physiological substrate of working memory. The fifth edition constitutes a comprehensive update, including all the major advances made on the physiology and cognitive neuroscience of the region since publication in 2008. All chapters have been fully revised, and the overview of prefrontal functions now interprets experimental data within the theoretical framework of the new paradigm of cortical structure and dynamics (the Cognit Paradigm), addressing the accompanying social, economic, and cultural implications. * Provides a distinctly interdisciplinary view of the prefrontal cortex, covering all major methodologies, from comparative anatomy to modern imaging* Unique analysis and synthesis of a large body of basic and clinical data on the subject (more than 2000 references)* Written by an award-winning author who discovered "memory cells," the physiological substrate of working memory* Synthesizes evidence that the prefrontal cortex constitutes a complex pre-adaptive system* Incorporates emerging study of the role of the frontal lobes in social, economic, and cultural adaptation

The prefrontal cortex

Inwardly rectifying K+ (Kir) channels allow K+ to move more easily into rather than out of the cell. They have diverse physiological functions depending on their type and their location. There are ...

Inwardly Rectifying Potassium Channels: Their Structure, Function, and Physiological Roles

2. Evidence for A m i n o Acids as T ransmi t t e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 2.1. Synthesis and Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 2.2. Synapt ic Release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 2.3. Postsynapt ic Act ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 2.4. Postsynapt ic An tagon i s t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 2.5. Inac t iva t ion and R e m o v a l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Amino acid transmitters in the mammalian central nervous system

Astrocytes are neural cells of ectodermal, neuroepithelial origin that provide for homeostasis and defense of the central nervous system (CNS). Astrocytes are highly heterogeneous in morphological appearance; they express a multitude of receptors, channels, and membrane transporters. This complement underlies their remarkable adaptive plasticity that defines the functional maintenance of the CNS in development and aging. Astrocytes are tightly integrated into neural networks and act within the context of neural tissue; astrocytes control homeostasis of the CNS at all levels of organization from molecular to the whole organ.

Physiology of astroglia

THE lateral hypothalamic region (LH) is generally referred to as the feeding centre of the brain in the regulation of food intake, and many authors consider the ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus (VMH) to be the satiety centre1. Various hypotheses have been put forward to explain how the cells of these centres are activated, and one of these is the glucostat theory1. The existence of hypothalamic chemoreceptors, such as those sensitive to the concentration of blood glucose, can be inferred from studies of single unit discharges induced by intravenous or intracarotid administration of various solutions2–4 and from work on selective gold thioglucose lesions5. It has, however, been impossible to determine which centre is activated or inhibited first or whether both centres are modulated directly by a change in the concentration of blood glucose, because of the reciprocal relations which exist between the activities of the VMH and the LH2,6. We report here the direct effects of glucose on individual cells of the VMH and LH, which we studied by means of electro-osmotic applications of glucose from micropipettes—the method used by Krnjevic and Whittaker7 in other regions in the brain.

Glucose and Osmosensitive Neurones of the Rat Hypothalamus

IT is generally accepted that the lateral hypothalamic area (LH) and ventromedial nucleus (VMH) have a reciprocal relationship in the control of feeding behaviour1–3, and that some neurones in these regions are sensitive to levels of glucose in the blood4,5 or to electro-osmotically applied glucose6 We have demonstrated that although about one-third of the VMH neurones increased their activity when glucose was applied, there are neurones in LH which are specifically inhibited by it These neurones are activated by direct applications of insulin, 2-deoxy-D-glucose and 3-O-methyl-D-glucose7 Booth8 demonstrated that the injection of 1 µl of 5% D-glucose in the LH blocked insulin-induced eating More recently Colin-Jones and Himsworth9 reported that an injection of 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2DG) into the LH causes a marked increase in gastric acid secretion and attributed it to the lack of metabolisable glucose in the LH neurones The fact that the specific glucose-sensitive cells which are inhibited by glucose exist only in LH has been highlighted in a recent report in which gastric secretion induced by the peripheral administration of 2DG in the cat was blocked by specific and discrete lesions in the lateral hypothalamus10 Here we report that the inhibition of LH neurones induced by direct application of glucose is the result of membrane hyperpolarisation and possibly results from the activation of the sodium pump causing an increased extrusion of internal sodium

Glucose Inhibition of the Glucose-sensitive Neurone in the Rat Lateral Hypothalamus

Effect of free fatty acid on the rat lateral hypothalamic neurons.

Reciprocal relationship of the lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus in the regulation of food intake

INTRODUCTION It has been generally acknowledged that food intake is controlled by hypothalamic activity. Apparently two centers in the hypothalamus, the lateral area (LH) and ventromedial nucleus (HVM), work in opposing directions, the former being excitatory and the latter, inhibitory. Only recently have investigators undertaken to analyze, at the level of the single unit, neuronal activity in the two hypothalamic centers for food intake (Sawa et al., 1959: Tsubokawa & Sutin, 1963; Oomura et al., 1964, 1967; Anand et al., 1964). The reciprocity of spontaneous unit discharges (SUDs) in the LH and HVM has been well established from comparisons of simultaneous recordings from both centers in acute experiments with cats (Anand et al., 1964: Iki, 1964; Oomura et al., 1964, 1967 & 1 9 6 7 ~ ) . In addition, repetitive stimulation of the LH increases SUDs in the LH, while at the same time markedly decreasing those in HVM, and vice-versa (Oomura et al., 1964 & 1967c; Iki, 1964). Reciprocal effects in the LH and HVM have also been observed during stimulation of various regions in the limbic system, such as the amygdala, septum, globus pallidus, mesencephalic reticular formation, etc. (Iki, 1964; Oomura et al., 1967). Oomura et al. (1967 & 1967c) found that SUDs recorded simultaneously from both the HVM and LH of cats were greatly influenced by the depth of ether anesthesia. Under light anesthesia, the frequency (number of impulses/second) of SUDs was 8-20/second in the HVM and l-5/second in LH. Deeper anesthesia brought about a decrease of discharge frequency in the HVM and an increase in the LH (0-3/second in the HVM and 10-20/second in LH). The frequency distribution was Poisson and the interspike interval histogram exponential in form when the discharge rate was low in either center. When the discharge rate increased, the frequency distribution became gaussian and the interval histogram r2. Procedures such as electrical stimulation of various regions in the limbic system, intra-arterial injections of substances such as glucose, or stomach distensions, which may have modified the discharge rate in one center in one way, generally changed the rate in the other center in the opposite direction. The crosscorrelation function between the activity of LH and HVM neurons often assumed large negative values. The present investigation of SUDs was carried out using unanesthetized and unrestrained cats for the following reasons: 1) to gain information about unit activity in both of these subcortical centers under relatively natural conditions; 2) to determine the nature of reciprocal relationships of these centers while animals were in various behavioral states: and 3) to consider these spontaneous trains of impulses as stochastic processes and to specify the nature of these processes. METHODS AND MATERIALS Operative procedures for the acute preparations appear elsewhere (Oomura et al., 1 9 6 7 ~ ) . For chronic preparations, the operative procedures were similar,

Yutaka Oomura

Papers

Glucose and Osmosensitive Neurones of the Rat Hypothalamus

Glucose Inhibition of the Glucose-sensitive Neurone in the Rat Lateral Hypothalamus

Effect of free fatty acid on the rat lateral hypothalamic neurons.

Reciprocal relationship of the lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus in the regulation of food intake

Some stochastical patterns of single unit discharges in the cat hypothalamus under chronic conditions