Marijuana/cannabinoid research has been transformed into mainstream science during the last half-century. Evidence based research and remarkable biotechnological advances demonstrate that phytocannabinoids and endocannabinoid (eCBs) acting on cannabinoid receptors (CBRs) regulate various aspects of human physiological, behavioral, immunological and metabolic functions. The distribution and function of the components of the endocannabinoid system (ECS) in the central nervous system (CNS) and immune processes have garnished significant research focus with major milestones. With these advances in biotechnology, rapid extension of the ECS research in the periphery has gained momentum. In this chapter, we review the components and tissue distribution of this previously unknown but ubiquitous and complex ECS that is involved in almost all aspects of mammalian physiology and pathology.

Endocannabinoid System Components: Overview and Tissue Distribution.

Gastric ulcer (GU) is a main threat to public health. 1-Deoxynojirimycin (DNJ) has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and may prevent GU but related mechanism remains unclear. DNJ was extracted from the supernatants of Bacillus subtilis by using ethanol and purified by using CM-Sepharose chromatography. A GU mouse model was induced by indomethacin. The functional role of DNJ in GU mice was explored by measuring the main molecules in the NF-KappaB pathway. After the model establishment, 40 GU mice were evenly assigned into five categories: IG (received vehicle control), LG (10 μg DNJ daily), MG (20 μg DNJ daily), HG (40 μg DNJ daily), and RG (0.5 mg ranitidine daily). Meanwhile, eight healthy mice were assigned as a control group (CG). After 1-month therapy, weight and gastric volume were investigated. The levels of serum inflammatory cytokines (IL-6 and TNF-α), antioxidant indices [superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and reduced glutathione (GSH)], and oxidant biomarker malondialdehyde (MDA) were examined via ELISA. Meanwhile, inflammatory cytokine (IL-6 and TNF-α) levels, and key molecules (NF-κB p65), cyclooxygenase 1 (COX-1 and COX2) involved in NF-κB pathway, were analyzed by using Western Blot. COX-1 and COX-2 levels were further measured by immunohistochemistry. The effects of DNJ on gastric functions were explored by measuring the changes of Motilin (MOT), Substance P (SP), Somatostatin (SS), and Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) in GU mouse models with ELISA Kits. The results indicated that DNJ prevented indomethacin-caused increase of gastric volume. DNJ improved histopathology of GU mice when compared with the mice from IG group (P < 0.05). DNJ consumption decreased the levels of IL-6 and TNF-α (P < 0.05). DNJ increased antioxidant indices of GU mice by improving the activities of SOD, CAT and reduced GSH, and reduced MDA levels (P < 0.05). DNJ increased the levels of prostaglandin E2, COX-1, COX2, and reduced the levels of and NF-κB p65 (P < 0.05). DNJ showed protection for gastric functions of GU mice by reducing the levels of MOT and SP, and increasing the levels of SS and VIP. DNJ treatment inactivates NF-κB signaling pathway, and increases anti-ulceration ability of the models.

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1-Deoxynojirimycin (DNJ) Ameliorates Indomethacin-Induced Gastric Ulcer in Mice by Affecting NF-kappaB Signaling Pathway.

Endogenous cannabinoids (ECs) are lipid-signaling molecules that specifically bind to cannabinoid receptor types 1 and 2 (CB1R and CB2R) and are highly expressed in central and many peripheral tissues under pathological conditions. Activation of hepatic CB1R is associated with obesity, insulin resistance, and impaired metabolic function, owing to increased energy intake and storage, impaired glucose and lipid metabolism, and enhanced oxidative stress and inflammatory responses. Additionally, blocking peripheral CB1R improves insulin sensitivity and glucose metabolism and also reduces hepatic steatosis and body weight in obese mice. Thus, targeting EC receptors, especially CB1R, may provide a potential therapeutic strategy against obesity and insulin resistance. There are many CB1R antagonists, including inverse agonists and natural compounds that target CB1R and can reduce body weight, adiposity, and hepatic steatosis, and those that improve insulin sensitivity and reverse leptin resistance. Recently, the use of CB1R antagonists was suspended due to adverse central effects, and this caused a major setback in the development of CB1R antagonists. Recent studies, however, have focused on development of antagonists lacking adverse effects. In this review, we detail the important role of CB1R in hepatic insulin resistance and the possible underlying mechanisms, and the therapeutic potential of CB1R targeting is also discussed.

https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/20/9/2109/pdf

Role of Cannabinoid Receptor Type 1 in Insulin Resistance and Its Biological Implications

In vivo anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic activities of cynaroside evaluated by using hydrogel formulations.

Protective role of cannabinoid CB1 receptors and vascular effects of chronic administration of FAAH inhibitor URB597 in DOCA-salt hypertensive rats

The prevalence of CART (cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript) throughout the organism, multiplicity of functions fulfilled by that peptide, and the collected evidence confirming CART contribution to blood pressure regulation prompted us to undertake the research aiming to identify, localize, and assess changes in CART-immunopositive structures of the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) of rats with renovascular hypertension. The two-kidney one-clip model of arterial hypertension was used to evaluate the location and density of CART-containing structures in the stomach (cardia, fundus, and pylorus), duodenum, jejunum, ileum, and colon of hypertensive rats. The study was carried out on the GI tract of 20 rats. Ten rats were subjected to the renal artery clipping procedure and after a 6-week period each of them developed stable hypertension. An immunohistochemical localization of CART was performed on paraffin GI tract sections from all the study animals. CART was detected in the extensive population of neurons, particularly within the myenteric plexuses all along the GI tract, and also in neuroendocrine cells, being especially numerous in the stomach and a few in the small intestine. The hypertension significantly increased the density of CART-positive structures in the rat GI tract. The differences between the hypertensive rats and the control animals concerned not only the density of CART-immunoreactive structures but also the staining intensity. As this study provides novel findings, we are planning further molecular examinations to better understand the impact of hypertension on the functioning and activity of CART in the GI tract. © 2012 International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc.

https://iubmb.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/biof.1161

Evaluation of density and distribution of CART-immunoreactive structures in gastrointestinal tract of hypertensive rats.

Women live about 4 years longer due to lower prevalence of cardiovascular complication with ageing. However, the mechanisms involved in the preservation of heart functionality in women have not been fully elucidated. The endocannabinoid system fulfils a significant role in the regulation of cardiovascular system functioning. Cannabinoids, acting through specific receptors (CB1 and CB2), influence on blood pressure, heart rate and myocardial contractility. The function of cardiac muscle cells is strictly dependent on calcium ions. Calcium homeostasis in cardiomyocytes is subjected to complex regulation via calcium-binding proteins. Among them, increasing attention has been paid to the recently discovered S100A6 and CacyBP/SIP. In order to better understand sex differences in the regulation of cardiomyocyte function during ageing, we undertook the present research aimed at immunohistochemical identification and comparative evaluation of cannabinoid receptors, S100A6 and CacyBP/SIP, in the myocardium of ageing men and women. The study was conducted on the hearts of 12 men and 10 women (organ donors) without a history of cardiovascular disease. The subjects were divided into two age groups: subjects older than 50 years and subjects under 50 years old. Paraffin heart sections were processed by immunohistochemistry for detection of cannabinoids receptors, S100A6 and CacyBP/SIP. In the heart samples from each study, participant’s expression of genes coding for CB1, CB2, S100A6 and CacyBP/SIP using real-time PCR method was measured. CB1 and CB2 immunoreactivity in the cytoplasm of cardiomyocytes in the heart of subjects over 50 was weaker than in younger individuals. In the heart of younger men, CB1-immunoreactivity was weaker and CB2-immunoreaction was stronger compared to women. In the hearts of older men, the CB1-immunostaining was more intense and CB2-immunoreactivity was weaker than in women. Immunodetection of CB1 shoved the presence of receptor in the intercalated discs, but only in the hearts of individuals over the 50 years old. In the hearts of older individuals, stronger immunolabelling was observed for S100A6 and CacyBP/SIP. Male hearts had greater S100A6-immunoreactivity (both age groups) but less CacyBP/SIP immunostaining (individuals over 50 years) compared to the age-matched women. The expression of genes coding CB1, CB2, S100A6 and CacyBP/SIP in the human heart was sex and age-dependent. Observed changes between men and women as well as between subject under and over 50 years were consistent with immunohistochemically stated changes in peptide content. Together, the data presented here indicate a close interaction between ageing and sex on the distribution and levels of cannabinoid receptors (CB1, CB2), S100A6 and CacyBP/SIP in the human heart.

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Sex differences in distribution of cannabinoid receptors (CB1 and CB2), S100A6 and CacyBP/SIP in human ageing hearts.

Arterial hypertension is associated with serious dysfunction of the cardiovascular system and digestive system. Given the relevant role of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) in the regulation of digestion process, control of blood pressure and heart rate as well as cardio- and gastro-protective character of the peptide, it appeared worthwhile to undertake the research aimed at immunohistochemical identification and evaluation of VIP-positive structures in the pylorus and heart of hypertensive rats. Up to now, this issue has not been investigated. The experimental model of hypertension in rats according to Goldblatt (two-kidney one clip model of hypertension) was used in the study. The experimental material (pylorus and heart) was collected in the sixth week of the study. VIP-containing structures were evaluated using immunohistochemical and morphometric methods. The analysis of the results showed a significant increase in the number of immunoreactive VIP structures and in the intensity of immunohistochemical staining in the stomach and in the heart of hypertensive rats. Our findings indicate that VIP is an important regulator of cardiovascular and digestive system in physiological and pathological conditions. However, to better understand the exact role of VIP in hypertension further studies need to be carried out.

Influence of renovascular hypertension on the distribution of vasoactive intestinal peptide in the stomach and heart of rats

Aging is a major risk factor for morbidity and mortality from cardiovascular causes in men. To better understand the cellular processes related to age-related cardiac complications, we undertook research aimed at comparative evaluation of genes expression and distribution of β-catenin, CacyBP/SIP, galectin-3 and LMP7 in the heart of healthy men in different age groups. The study was conducted on the hearts of 12 men (organ donors) without a history of cardiovascular disease, who were divided into two age groups: men under and men over 45 years of age. On paraffin sections, immunohistochemical reactions were performed to detect β-catenin, CacyBP/SIP, galectin-3 and immunoproteasome subunit LMP7. The expression of genes coding β-catenin, CacyBP/SIP, galectin-3 and LMP7 was also evaluated by real-time PCR method. In the heart of men over 45 years old, both gene expression and immunoreactivity of β-catenin, CacyBP/SIP, galectin-3 and LMP7 were stronger compared to younger individuals. The results of the presented studies suggest that β-catenin, CacyBP/SIP, galectin-3 and immunoproteasomes might be involved in the internal regulation of heart homeostasis during ageing.

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Ageing-related changes in the levels of β-catenin, CacyBP/SIP, galectin-3 and immunoproteasome subunit LMP7 in the heart of men.

Objective The Wnt/s-catenin pathway plays an important role in pathogenesis of variety cancers. Most studies on changes in WNT/β-catenin pathway in renal cell carcinoma (RCC) apply only to clear cell RCC, while there are no comparative assessments of this signaling pathway in various histological types of renal tumors in the available literature. Additionally, considering the close relationship between WNT/β-catenin signaling, CacyBP/SIP and proteasomal activity, it seemed worth comparing WNT/β-catenin pathway, CacyBP/SIP and LMP7 immunoproteasome subunit in human samples of clear cell, papillary, and chromophobe RCC. Methods Tests were performed on sections of three types of kidney tumors together with surrounding unchanged tissue fragments collected from 50 patients. Samples were divided into three groups depending on the histological type of cancer: clear cell, papillary and chromophobe RCC. Immunohistochemistry and PCR methods were used to identify WNT10A, Fzd5, β-catenin, GSK-3s, CacyBP/SIP, LMP7, and gene expression. Results Immunoreactivity and expression of WNT10A, Fzd5, β-catenin, GSK-3s, CacyBP/SIP, LMP7 in clear cell RCC was markedly increased compared to non-cancerous kidney tissue. In papillary RCC, immunoreactivity and expression of WNT/β-catenin pathway, CacyBP/SIP, LMP7 was also increased compared to non-malignant kidneys, but it was less pronounced than in clear cell RCC. The least substantial increase in immunoreactivity and expression of WNT/β-catenin pathway, CacyBP/SIP, LMP7 was found in chromophobe RCC, compared to other RCC histological subtypes studied. Conclusions Study results suggest an important role of WNT/β-catenin pathway, CacyBP/SIP and LMP7 in RCC carcinogenesis, and may indicate new aspects of pathomechanisms leading to differences in the biology of clear cell, papillary and chromophobe RCC.

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Comparative Assessment of the WNT/β-Catenin Pathway, CacyBP/SIP, and the Immunoproteasome Subunit LMP7 in Various Histological Types of Renal Cell Carcinoma.

Żaneta Piotrowska

Papers

Evaluation of density and distribution of CART-immunoreactive structures in gastrointestinal tract of hypertensive rats.

Sex differences in distribution of cannabinoid receptors (CB1 and CB2), S100A6 and CacyBP/SIP in human ageing hearts.

Influence of renovascular hypertension on the distribution of vasoactive intestinal peptide in the stomach and heart of rats

Ageing-related changes in the levels of β-catenin, CacyBP/SIP, galectin-3 and immunoproteasome subunit LMP7 in the heart of men.

Comparative Assessment of the WNT/β-Catenin Pathway, CacyBP/SIP, and the Immunoproteasome Subunit LMP7 in Various Histological Types of Renal Cell Carcinoma.